AP World History Mushalko/Park Study Guide for Post WWI-Present Exam Exam Date: Friday, June 5, 2026 Exam Format: 28 Regents Multiple Choice Questions and 1 Critical Response Question Set Topics WWI People/Organizations Events/Developments Ideas Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria Woodrow Wilson The League of Nations Trench Warfare Treaty of Versailles New nations created after WWI (Turkey and rise of Ataturk, Mandate system) Interwar period positive and negative developments M.A.I.N Causes New technologies and their impact (machine guns, submarines, poison gases) Total War Self Determination Crash Course World History WWI Russian Revolution People/Organizations Events/Developments Ideas Vladimir Lenin Bolsheviks Josef Stalin Bloody Sunday Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 The Great Purge Communism Command Economy Five-year plans Collectivization Use of Propaganda Mexican Revolution People/Organizations Events/Developments Ideas Porfirio Diaz Pauncho Villa Emiliano Zapata Civil War: Conventionistas vs. Constitutionalistas Land Reforms Role of the United States Constitution of 1917 Political Revolution vs. Social Revolution WWII People/Organizations Events/Developments Ideas Benito Mussolini Adolf Hitler The Allied Powers The Axis Powers Nazi Germany policies against Jewish population before WWII Japan’s Invasion of China (1937) Germany’s invasion of Poland (1939) Japan’s attack on Pearl Harbor (1941) The Holocaust Atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Creation of the United Nations Nuremberg Trials Soviet Union, US, and Britain's occupation of Germany Facism Appeasement New Technologies and their impact (aerial bombardment, radar, atomic bomb) Total War Role of Women in the War for both sides Review this handout to understand the effects of WWII Crash Course World History WWII Cold War People/Organizations Events/Developments Ideas Josef Stalin Harry Truman NATO Warsaw Pact Fidel Castro Mikhail Gorbachev Proxy wars in Korea, Vietnam and Afghanistan Space Race Nuclear Arms Race Berlin Crisis and Airlift - 1948 Creation of the Berlin Wall - 1961 Impact on Latin America Cuba Nicaragua Argentina (Dirty War, Mothers of the Disappeared) Eastern European nations move to Democratic elections - 1980’s Berlin Wall torn down - 1989 Iron Curtain Containment Marshall Plan Glasnost and Perestroika Neocolonialism Crash Course World History Cold War Chinese Revolution People/Organizations Events/Developments Ideas Sun Yixian Jiang Jieshi Mao Zedong Deng Xiaoping Chinese Civil War - Nationalists (Jiang Jieshi) vs. Communists (Mao Zedong) Splitting of China between the People’s Republic of China and Taiwan - 1949 5 Year Plans and The Great Leap Forward Cultural Revolution Tiananmen Square Massacre - 1989 Maoism (How was Mao’s idea of communism different from Stalin’s?) Four Modernizations Difference between Mao Zedong and Deng Xiaoping Crash Course World History Chinese Revolution Decolonization in South Asia/India People/Organizations Events/Developments Ideas Mohandas Gandhi Indian National Congress Jawaharlal Nehru Mohammed Ali Jinnah Muslim League Rowlatt Acts and Amritsar Massacre British Textile Boycott Salt March Quit India Movement Indian Independence - 1947 Partition of India and Pakistan Divide and Rule policies Indian Nationalism Satyagraha Civil Disobedience Continued religious tensions in India. Continued tensions between India and Pakistan Crash Course World History Decolonization Decolonization in Africa People/Organizations Events/Developments Ideas Ghana Kwame Nkrumah Independence of Ghana - 1957 Non-violent resistance Policy of Non-alignment Pan-Africanism Kenya Jomo Kenyatta Mau Mau Mau Mau Rebellion Independence of Kenya - 1963 Armed Resistance South Africa Nelson Mandela African National Congress Desmond Tutu Willem De Klerk Sharpeville Massacre Mandela’s Imprisonment International Boycott of South Africa End of Apartheid and Free Elections - 1994 Truth and Reconciliation Commission Apartheid Civil Disobedience → Armed Resistance Plus: know the general causes and effects of decolonization in the continent of Africa. Crash Course World History Decolonization Israel and Palestine People/Organizations Events/Developments Ideas Gamel Abdul Nasser Anwar Sadat and Menachem Begin Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) Yasar Arafat Balfour Declaration United Nations partition of Israel and Palestine - 1947 1948 War - Catastrophe/Nakba vs. War of Independence 1953 - Conflict over Suez Canal 1967 - Six Day War and results Palestinian Displacement Camp David Accords Oslo Accords Zionism Intifada Palestinian and Jewish perspectives on the conflict Crash Course World History on Israel and Palestine Iran Revolution People/Organizations Events/Developments Ideas Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddeq Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi Ayatollah Khomeini Coup d’Etat supported by Britain and United States White Revolution of the Shah (literacy, women’s voting, economic reforms) SAVAK Return of Khomeini and Iranian Revolution - 1979 Nationalization of an industry Compare life under the Shah and the Ayatollah Role of women in Iran and the Women Life Freedom movement. Crash Course World History on Iran Revolution Genocide in the 20th Century People/Organizations Events/Developments Ideas Rwanda Hutus and Tutsis Effects of Belgian colonization Assassination of President Habyarimana United Nations Criminal Tribunal and Gacaca Courts UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. Risk Factors for Genocide Ethnic Cleansing, War Crimes National Justice, International Justice and Transitional Justice Cambodia Khmer Rouge Pol Pot Impact of war in Vietnam Goal of creating an Agrarian Classless Society Killing Fields Bosnia Bosnian Serbs and Bosnian Muslims Slobadon Milosevic Fall of Yugoslavia and new nations. Srebenica (1995) Use this resource to be familiar with at least one other example of genocide or human tragedy in the 20th century. Where did it happen? What were the causes? Which group was targeted? What were the effects? Globalization People/Organizations Events/Developments Ideas International Monetary Fund (IMF) World Bank World Trade Organization (WTO) Multinational Organizations Positive and Negative Effects of Globalization Globalization I Globalization II Do Now What does the term “globalization” mean? Aim: What are the positive and negative impacts of Globalization Do Now ● What does the term “globalization” mean? ● Globalization: connection of different parts of the world. ● Globalization results in the expansion of international cultural, economic, and political activities. As people, ideas, knowledge, and goods move more easily around the globe, the experiences of people around the world become more similar. ● “Increasing interconnectedness and interdependence of different parts of the world.” AIM: ● What are the positive and negative impacts of globalization? ● How are those impacts represented in political cartoons and other media? Directions Examine the political cartoons and images around the room and in the hallway For political cartoons: 1. What is the author’s attitude toward globalization? How can you tell? 2. What is the author’s argument about the specific topic in the cartoon? How can you tell? For image sets: 3. What aspect of globalization do these images represent (i.e. political, social/cultural, economic)? 4. What are some of ways people benefit from globalization as represented or suggested by these images? 5. What are some hidden drawbacks of globalization represented or suggested by these images? For Political and Economic Events 6. How does the political/economic event represent globalization? Political Cartoon 1 Political Cartoon 2 Political Cartoon 3 Context for Political Cartoon 3 “´It’s considered the worst garment industry accident of all time: An eight-story building housing several garment factories and a shopping center called Rana Plaza collapsed [in 2013] in Bangladesh, killing more than 1,000 workers and injuring more than 2,500. ´Officials discovered the top four floors were constructed without building permits. The owner of the building, Sohel Rana, was convicted on corruption charges and sentenced to three years in prison. Murder charges are still pending against him. ´Bangladesh is the second largest clothing manufacturer in the world, second only to China. The garment industry employs millions of people in Bangladesh, across about 7,000 facilities, said Paul Barrett, deputy director of New York University’s Stern Center for Business and Human Rights, which has been following Bangladesh’s garment industry since the factory collapse.” ´Source: PBSNewshour Political Cartoon 4 Context for Political Cartoon 4 World Trade Organization ´World Trade Organization (WTO), International organization based in Geneva that supervises world trade. It was created in 1995 to replace the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Like its predecessor, it aims to lower trade barriers and encourage multilateral trade. It monitors members’ adherence to GATT agreements and negotiates and implements new agreements. Critics of the WTO, including many opponents of economic globalization, have charged that it undermines national sovereignty by promoting the interests of large multinational corporations and that the trade liberalization it encourages leads to environmental damage and declining living standards for low-skilled workers in developing countries. By the early 21st century, the WTO had more than 145 members. NAFTA ´NAFTA, in full North American Free Trade Agreement, Trade pact signed by Canada, the U.S., and Mexico in 1992, which took effect in 1994. Inspired by the success of the European Community in reducing trade barriers among its members, NAFTA created the world’s largest free-trade area. It basically extended to Mexico the provisions of a 1988 Canada-U.S. free-trade agreement, calling for elimination of all trade barriers over a 15-year period, granting U.S. and Canadian companies access to certain Mexican markets, and incorporating agreements on labour and the environment. Political and Economic Event- WTO Protests ´Seattle WTO protests of 1999, a series of marches, direct actions, and protests carried out from November 28 through December 3, 1999, that disrupted the World Trade Organization(WTO) Ministerial Conference in Seattle, Washington. Comprising a broad and diffuse coalition of the American Federation of Labor–Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL-CIO) and other labour unions, student groups, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), media activists, international farm and industrial workers, anarchists, and others, the Seattle WTO protests are often viewed as the inauguration of the antiglobalization movement. ´The Seattle WTO protests were some of the first major international mobilizations to be coordinated via the Internet. The protests were reported online with streaming audio and video clips by the Seattle Independent Media Center. While 400,000 people took part in a virtual sit-in of the WTO Web site organized by the Electrohippies Collective, more than 40,000 protesters (some estimates were as high as 60,000) were in Seattle to oppose everything from specific WTO policies to free trade and the human rights failures of globalization. Throughout the week, NGOs also sponsored debates, lectures, and teach-ins. Image Set 1 ? Mexico’s Plaza Sésamo was the first international co-production, along with Brazil’s Vila Sésamo. Both debuted in 1972, only three years after the show premiered in the United States. Plaza Sésamo now airs throughout Latin America, and includes such local characters as Abelardo, a giant parrot who is Big Bird’s cousin. ? Bangladesh’s local co-production premiered in 2005. The 2006 documentary The World According to Sesame Street chronicled the creation of Sisimpur, Kosovo’s local version, and a season of South Africa’s Takalani Sesame. Sisimpur draws on the rich Bengali puppet tradition, and includes such characters as the outgoing girl Tuktuki, the nature-loving Bengal tiger Halum, and a curious jackal named Shiku, while the set features a banyan tree, tea shop, and sweets shop, all of which are traditional gathering places. Sesame Workshop has also begun working to bring play-based learning to Rohingya children living in refugee settlements in Bangladesh, their families having fled persecution in their native Myanmar. (Sesame Workshop also works with refugees in Iraq, Lebanon, and Syria.) Image Set 2 Image Set 3 A) Components of a Boeing aircraft. B) Components of Nutella Image Set 4 Political Event: Arab Spring Case Study: Egypt What happened in Egypt that led to Arab Spring ● In the 1950’s Nasser presided over a socialist government in Egypt ● In the 1970’s under Sadat, Egypt integrated free market reforms and foreign enterprise. ● Hosni Mubarak was president from 1981 to 2011. Under him, economic problems worsened, corruption increased and that state repressed political freedom resulting in massives protests in 2011 for him to step down. Protesters in Tahrir Square in Cairo Egypt in February 2011. Social Media played an important role in this protest movement. Egyptians got around state controlled media by using social media to discuss their dissatisfaction. The protests were organized using facebook, twitter, and other social media and spread across the country. Graffiti found on a wall in Cairo Egypt In 2011, popular unrest swept across the Middle East and North Africa launching pro-democracy movements that came to be known as Arab Spring. Video 1: Globalization = increasing economic, social, and cultural connection of the world Looks mainly at globalization through trade A t-shirt is used as an example of globalization Cotton may come from US, Brazil, India, Uganda, or multiple countries US gov historically subsidized (basically gave money to) cotton production, which made US cotton cheaper US dominance in cotton production/exportation has decreased as production/exports from other less developed countries like Brazil and India have increased Cotton is often spun in countries where there are low wages like China, Vietnam, Mexico, Guatemala, and India Finished shirts are sent to the US/Europe for printing (if its a printed t-shirt that is) and sale Transportation costs are lower than many people assume (there is a reason why TEMU has free shipping) The most expensive portions of a t-shirts are usually its design and/or printing and/or retail Modern trade is mostly influenced by multinational companies Trade has expanded since transportation is faster, cheaper, and safer (in comparison to the past that is) Govs have reduced tariffs and trade barriers (that kinda has changed though, at least for the US) which encourages “free trade” Many economists argue that less regulation by gov = more economic growth Developing countries often have less tariffs, private industries, and less regulations These changes were encouraged by the IMF (International Monetary Fund) There is debate about whether these policies actually benefited developing nations Manufacturing has increasingly moved to developing countries from wealthy countries Many products are made from parts which have been manufactured in different countries Computers for instance, are assembled from components made around the world Countries like China (such as in the province of Taiwan), Japan, South Korea, and Brazil play major roles for manufacturing Foreign markets are often larger than domestic (home) markets Global capitalism has increased worldwide economic output Manufacturing jobs in developing countries can give opportunities for better living conditions Around 600m people moved out of extreme poverty during the previous 30 yrs Consumers benefit with inexpensive goods such as clothing, electronics, and shoes Migration is occurring on a larger scale than ever before Air travel makes migration easier Communication technology allows migrants to keep in touch with their family members back home Economic opportunities in more developed countries attract migrants Money sent home by migrants is important to many developing countries Globalization encourages cultural diffusion Migrants bring languages, traditions, foods, music, and art with them Some individuals view globalization as an increase in American cultural influence American media and products are distributed worldwide Access to diverse cultures has increased dramatically Examples include Bollywood films, Swedish hip hop, Brazilian soap operas, and international sports Globalization has made many goods cheaper and more easier to access Human population growth has increased dramatically The average life expectancy has increased significantly Improved healthcare has reduced deaths during childbirth (at least for developed countries) Antibiotics has improved health (generally speaking) Video 2: Looks at whether Globalization should be seen as good or bad Argues that judging globalization requires thinking about the future Developed countries have gone from manufacturing economies to service economies (an economy where people do things for other people instead of making stuff) Service-sector jobs include healthcare, retail, education, entertainment, and information technology Modern consumers are often unaware of the reality of production (i.e what actually happens and what truly is inside of the goods that they are consuming) Globalization has contributed to increased individualism (basically caring about ones self mainly) Since 1960s, personal freedom has become a more influential social value Govs have generally decreased intervention in many areas The influence of collectivist ideologies declined after many Marxist systems failed Tech can separate family members by encouraging more individual screen time (ex: scrolling on TikTok at the dinner table) Pop growth and economic expansion have increased the pressure on the gov More land has been made into farmland and development Rainforests have been destroyed in areas like the amazon Global consumption of resources has increased and continues to increase Wealthier people generally consume more energy and resources Increased fossil fuel consumption = more climate change Current economic growth relies a lot on resource consumption Continuous economic growth may not be sustainable for the Earth Globalization has occurred with rapid urbanization Massive #s of ppl have moved from rural areas to cities Increased pop density raises concerns about pandemics Greater global connectivity could allow for diseases to spread quicker International trade isn’t new, but the scale and speed is new and unexpected Trade now makes up a larger share of the global economy in comparison to the past Globalization hasn’t got rid of violence and conflict fully Some historians try to argue that economic interdependence (needing to rely on each other) reduces likelihood of war Democracy has increased significantly since the 80s and 90s Many Latin American countries went away from military dictatorships South Africa ended apartheid and elected Nelson Mandela as first Black President in 1994 South Africa adopted most progressive constitutions Democracy =/= automatic economic success Many democratic countries still struggle economically China has achieved major economic success without being democratic Brazil and India combined democracy with economic liberalization (relaxing economic laws) and experienced significant growth Millions of ppl have been lifted out of poverty in some developing countries Globalization has increased wealth, but the benefits are not evenly spread Wealth inequality, still amajor issue within and between countries Critics argue to that billions of ppl havent significantly benefited from globalization Future events will influence how historians look at globalization A global pandemic could show the dangers of these connections Climate change can cause major humanitarian crises Global cooperation could also solve these problems Understanding present = imagining the potential future History relies on perspective and context Every person shapes history, not js famous leaders People make historical change through their everyday actions and decisions GLobalization ultimate impact depends on how humanity responds to future issues Global Hist. & Geo. II – Jan. ’25 [19] [OVER] NAME __________________________________  SCHOOL ________________________________ Write your answers to questions 29–34b in the spaces provided. Use a pen with black or dark-blue ink to answer these questions. Part II SHORT-ANSWER CONSTRUCTED RESPONSE QUESTIONS (CRQ) These questions are based on the accompanying documents and are designed to test your ability to work with historical documents. Each Constructed Response Question (CRQ) Set is made up of 2 documents. Some of these documents have been edited for the purposes of this question. Keep in mind that the language and images used in a document may reflect the historical context of the time in which it was created. In developing your answers to Part II, be sure to keep these explanations in mind: Identify—means to put a name to or to name. Explain—means to make plain or understandable; to give reasons for or causes of; to show the logical development or relationship of something. Short-Answer CRQ Set 1 Structure • Question 29 uses Document 1 (Context) • Question 30 uses Document 2 (Source) • Question 31 uses Documents 1 and 2 (Relationship between documents) Short-Answer CRQ Set 2 Structure • Question 32 uses Document 1 (Context) • Question 33 uses Document 2 (Source) • Questions 34a and 34b use Documents 1 and 2 (Relationship between documents) Global Hist. & Geo. II – Jan. ’25 [20] CRQ Set 1 Directions (29–31): Analyze the documents and answer the short-answer questions that follow each document in the space provided. Base your answer to question 29 on Document 1 below and on your knowledge of social studies. Document 1 Sea of Japan Yangtse Foreign Spheres of Influence in China (prior to 1911 Revolution) Yellow Sea Yangtse East China Sea South China Sea Port Arthur Harbin Shanghai HONAN INNER MONGOLIA Hong Kong (Br.) Key KOREA (Japan) MONGOLIA RUSSIAN INDIA NEPAL BHUTAN TIBET EMPIRE TAIWAN (Japan) Russia Foreign Trade Treaty Port Occupation of Manchuria Japan Britain France Germany Japan 1905 Russia 1900-05 Source: Portsmouth Peace Treaty website (adapted) MANCHURIA Geographic Context—refers to where this historical development/event is taking place and why it is taking place there. 29 Explain the geographic context for the developments shown on this map. [1] Score Global Hist. & Geo. II – Jan. ’25 [21] [OVER] Base your answer to question 30 on Document 2 below and on your knowledge of social studies. Document 2 The following is a foreign correspondence that illustrates actions taken by the I Ho Ch’uan, also known in the West as the Boxers. This author includes quotes from Dr. John Hykes of the American Bible Society and information provided by Edwin Conger, an American government official in China. NORTH CHINA TERRORIZED Bands Organized to Destroy the Homes of Christian Converts. Work of Pillage and Murder by Boxers—Would Drive Out Foreigners— Suspicion of Government Connivance [scheme]. Foreign Correspondence New York Times. TIEN-TSIN, Feb. 10.–In order to present intelligently an account of the disturbances in North China it will be necessary for me to write a brief summary of the uprising from its beginning. While confined principally to Shantung Province, it is affecting seriously all Christian work in the north and is rapidly assuming vast proportions and spreading like a forest fire from village to village. I have gathered all the information possible from various sources, both native and foreign, but as it is important that only facts should be presented, I will make only such statements as are amply proved. Most of the statements given below are those which have been communicated officially to Minister Conger by our American missionaries and they do not include the reports of innumerable outrages of which we have not reliable information. . . . The I Ho Ch’uan, Righteous Harmony Fists, commonly known as the “Boxers,” is a so-called secret society which made its first appearance about one year ago. It rapidly attracted multitudes of men, both young and old, who formed into small bands of gymnasts. Each band was conducted by a “demonized” leader, who, by the selection of an epileptic [having seziures] patient or by the aid of hypnotism, caused a “medium” to display wild or unnatural symptoms or to utter wild and strange speech, this serving as a basis for the claim of this society to spiritual power. The followers were assured of immunity from death or physical injury, their bodies being spiritually protected from sword cuts and bullets. . . . Source: New York Times, March 30, 1900 30 Based on this excerpt, explain how this article shows bias in its description of the I Ho Ch’uan. [1] Score Global Hist. & Geo. II – Jan. ’25 [22] Base your answer to question 31 on both Documents 1 and 2 and on your knowledge of social studies. Cause—refers to something that contributes to the occurrence of an event, the rise of an idea, or the bringing about of a development. Effect—refers to what happens as a consequence (result, impact, outcome) of an event, an idea, or a development. 31 Identify and explain a cause-and-effect relationship between the events and/or ideas found in these documents. Be sure to use evidence from both Documents 1 and 2 in your response. [1] Score Global Hist. & Geo. II – Jan. ’25 [23] [OVER] CRQ Set 2 Directions (32–34b): Analyze the documents and answer the short-answer questions that follow each document in the space provided. Base your answer to question 32 on Document 1 and on your knowledge of social studies. Document 1 Photograph from Cape Town, South Africa, in 1967 Source: The Guardian 32 Explain the historical circumstances that led to the situation shown in this photograph. [1] Score Global Hist. & Geo. II – Jan. ’25 [24] Base your answer to question 33 on Document 2 below and on your knowledge of social studies. Document 2 On February 2, 1990, South African President F. W. de Klerk delivered a speech at the opening of Parliament. The audience included South Africa’s White government and foreign ambassadors, and was also broadcast on television and radio in South Africa and around the world. The speech outlines de Klerk’s goals for South Africa. . . .Our country and all its people have been embroiled in conflict, tension and violent struggle for decades. It is time for us to break out of the cycle of violence and break through to peace and reconciliation. The silent majority is yearning for this. The youth deserve it. With the steps the Government has taken it has proven its good faith and the table is laid for sensible leaders to begin talking about a new dispensation [system], to reach an understanding by way of dialogue discussion. The agenda is open and the overall aims to which we are aspiring should be acceptable to all reasonable South Africans. Among other things, those aims include a new, democratic constitution; universal franchise [voting]; no domination; equality before an independent judiciary; the protection of minorities as well as of individual rights; freedom of religion; a sound economy based on proven economic principles and private enterprise; dynamic programmes directed at better education, health services, housing and social conditions for all. In this connection Mr. Nelson Mandela could play an important part. The Government has noted that he has declared himself to be willing to make a constructive contribution to the peaceful political process in South Africa. . . . Source: F. W. de Klerk, speech at the opening of Parliament, February 2, 1990 33 Based on this excerpt, explain how the intended audience affects what de Klerk includes in his speech. [1] Score Global Hist. & Geo. II – Jan. ’25 [25] [OVER] Base your answers to questions 34a and 34b on both Document 1 and 2 below and on your knowledge of social studies. Turning point—is a major event, idea, or historical development that brings about significant change. It can be local, regional, national, or global. 34a–34b Using evidence from both Documents 1 and 2 and your knowledge of social studies: a) Identify a turning point directly associated with the historical developments found in both Documents 1 and 2. [1] b) Explain how the turning point you identified created significant change, using evidence from both Documents 1 and 2. [1] 34a Score 34b Score AP World ERHS Park/Mushalko HW: Genocide and Mass Atrocities of the 20th Century Part I: What conditions lead to Genocides Directions: Read the article and answer the questions in your notebook. Article #1: What have we learned about the risk factors and warning signs of genocide? How might citizens and officials within a nation identify and respond to warning signs? What obstacles might be faced? How might other countries and international organizations respond to warning signs within a nation? What obstacles may exist? Part II: How do people experience genocides? - Survivor Stories Directions: Read the introductions for each of the Genocides below. Watch or read the survivor stories. Holocaust Between 1941 and 1945, orchestrated by Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler's regime. Targeting primarily Jews but also other marginalized groups, including Romani people, disabled individuals, LGBTQ+ individuals, and political dissidents, the Holocaust saw systematic persecution, forced labor, imprisonment, and extermination in concentration camps. Approximately six million Jews, along with millions of others, perished in gas chambers, mass shootings, and other atrocities, leading to immeasurable loss and devastation across Europe. Surviving a Massacre | Facing History & Ourselves Cambodia Between 1975 and 1979, Cambodia’s Khmer Rouge subjected the country’s citizens to forced labor, persecution, and execution in the name of the regime’s ruthless agrarian ideology. Almost two million people—approximately one third of the country’s population—died in the “killing fields.” Arn Chorn Pond on his experiences in Cambodia Srebrenica in Bosnia An estimated 100,000 people were killed during the conflict in Bosnia between 1992 and 1995, including the July 1995 genocide of 8,000 Bosnian Muslims from Srebrenica. Massacre survivor: 'The soil is soaked with blood' - BBC News Rwanda In 1994, between 500,000 and one million Rwandans were massacred in a genocide when the Hutu extremist-led government launched a plan to wipe out the country’s entire Tutsi minority and any others who opposed their policies. Interview with Rwandan Genocide Survivor Jacqueline Murekatete | Facing History & Ourselves Research another historical or recent example. You can independently research or choose a case from the United States Holoaust Museum Website and review the resources. If you utilize this website, click on the actual country for survivor stories, historical context and other resources. Questions to answer in your notebooks. Summarize the causes of the genocide you independently researched. How did the survivor stories make you feel? Did any particular moments stand out to you? Why? What insights did you gain about the experiences of the survivors? Consider their experience of the genocide and the ways they rebuilt their lives. What historical, political, or social factors contributed to the genocides discussed in the stories? (consider the risk factors in the article you read in Part I) (5-7 sentences) Skip to main content < Browse all Discussion Questions Theme: After the war What have we learned about the risk factors and warning signs of genocide? The study of the Holocaust raises questions about how the world can recognize and respond to indications that a country is at risk for genocide or mass atrocity. While each genocide is unique, in most places where genocide occurs, there are common risk factors and warning signs. Explore this question to learn how to identify these signs in today's world, as well as how they were present during the Holocaust and other genocides. See related articles for background information related to this discussion. More information about this image Cite Share Print Tags warning signs genocide postwar Rwanda Bosnia Bosnian War Language English Risk Factors and Warning Signs Genocides have continued to happen since the Holocaust. For example, genocide occurred in Rwanda in 1994, and at Srebrenica in Bosnia in 1995. Every genocide is unique, but most genocides share some things in common. Just as there were key conditions that made the Holocaust possible, there are identifiable risk factors for genocide today. Some of the most common are: Instability: One of the strongest signs of the potential for genocide is large-scale instability. Instability can result from armed conflict or developments that threaten a regime’s power, such as a coup, revolution, or uprising. Instability may increase the risk of genocide for several reasons. Leaders may feel threatened, citizens may feel insecure, and the law may be suspended or neglected. In such environments, leaders and citizens may be more willing to consider violence to protect themselves and what they value. Ideology: Genocide often happens when leaders believe that some people in the country are inferior or dangerous because of their race, religion, or national or ethnic origin. In Rwanda, leaders of the Hutu majority believed that the Tutsi minority wanted to dominate the Hutus. In Bosnia, Serb leaders believed that the Muslim Bosniaks were a threat to the freedom and culture of the Orthodox Christian Serbs. Discrimination and violence against groups: Where genocide occurs, there usually have been earlier acts of discrimination, persecution, and violence against people who belong to a certain group. In Rwanda, Tutsis faced various forms of discrimination. There were several incidents of mass violence against Tutsis in previous decades. In addition, Bosnian Serb forces committed numerous war crimes and crimes against humanity against Bosniak and Croatian communities before committing genocide at Srebrenica. Related Articles: What is Genocide? Switch Topic Critical Thinking Questions How might citizens and officials within a nation identify and respond to warning signs? What obstacles might be faced? How might other countries and international organizations respond to warning signs within a nation? What obstacles may exist? How can knowledge of the events in Germany and Europe before the Nazis came to power help citizens today respond to threats of genocide and mass atrocity? Feedback Thank you for supporting our work We would like to thank Crown Family Philanthropies, Abe and Ida Cooper Foundation, the Claims Conference, EVZ, and BMF for supporting the ongoing work to create content and resources for the Holocaust Encyclopedia. View the list of donor acknowledgement. 100 Raoul Wallenberg Place, SW Washington, DC 20024-2126 Main telephone: 202.488.0400 TTY: 202.488.0406 Get the Latest News E-mail Address Your e-mail address Postal Code Postal Code Plan Your Visit Current Exhibitions Calendar of Events Support the Museum Donate Learn Teach Collections Academic Research Remember Survivors and Victims Genocide Prevention Antisemitism and Holocaust Denial Outreach Holocaust Encyclopedia Collections Search Holocaust Survivors and Victims Resource Center History Unfolded Experiencing History Early Warning Project About the Museum Contact the Museum Terms of Use Privacy Accessibility Legal Skip to main content Learning & Events Resource Library Ideas This Week Search Phrase Search Sign Up Log In Select a country Facing History & Ourselves About For Teachers For Schools & Districts Support Our Work Give Breadcrumb Home Resource Library Video Everyone Has A Story - Arn Chorn-Pond Arn Chorn-Pond tells his story as a refugee from the Cambodian Genocide. Video Length 09:48 Subject History Social Studies Language English — US Updated February 27, 2014 Genocide facebook sharing x sharing email sharing Save Print Cite this resource Share to Google Classroom This resource may contain sensitive material. Open Transcript Everyone Has A Story - Arn Chorn-Pond Credit: Facing History & Ourselves How to Cite This Video Facing History & Ourselves, “Everyone Has A Story - Arn Chorn-Pond”, video, last updated February 27, 2014. You might also be interested in… slide 1 to 5 of 12 Collection Saved Holocaust and Human Behavior Explore the digital version of our core resource on the Holocaust. Find classroom-ready readings, primary sources, and short documentary films that support a study of the Holocaust through the lens of human behavior. Colored painting of trees. Mini-Lesson Save Genocide Still Happens Use this mini-lesson to reflect with your students on what we can do to stop ongoing atrocities and prevent future genocides. Family photographs of victims of the Rwandan Genocide Lesson Save Identifying Raphael Lemkin's Outrage Students examine how Lemkin’s outrage over the crimes committed by the Ottoman Empire during World War I inspired him to take action. 1950 --- International lawyer Raphael Lemkin helped draft the Genocide Convention, which maps out prevention and punishment for the crime of genocide Lesson Save Exploring Raphael Lemkin's Actions: The Invention of the Word "Genocide" Students learn about the challenges Lemkin faced from the international legal community, including its lack of sufficient language to talk about crimes against humanity and civilization. A photograph of several delegates who signed the UN Genocide Convention Credit: US Holocaust Memorial Museum, gift of United Nations Lesson Save Continuing Lemkin's Legacy: What Can We Do to Prevent and Stop Genocide? Focusing on the crisis in Darfur, students examine what it means to pursue Lemkin’s mission to stop and prevent genocide in today's world. 1950 --- International lawyer Raphael Lemkin helped draft the Genocide Convention, which maps out prevention and punishment for the crime of genocide Mini-Unit Totally Unofficial: Raphael Lemkin and the Genocide Convention This unit explores the legacy of Raphael Lemkin, who coined the word "genocide" and drafted the Genocide Convention. A study of Lemkin's work helps students understand traditional world history themes such as sovereignty, diplomacy, and law; as well as deepen students’ understanding of political responses to mass violence. 1950 --- International lawyer Raphael Lemkin helped draft the Genocide Convention, which maps out prevention and punishment for the crime of genocide Collection The Nanjing Atrocities Explore this collection of lesson plans and student materials that place the Nanjing Atrocities within the larger context of World War II in East Asia. Two brothers stand outside of the remains of their house and shop in the southern section of Nanjing, which was badly damaged during the fighting. Collection Resources for Civic Education in California Explore resources that meet the California History–Social Science Framework standards. Four students sit in a circle in conversation. The student in the center speaks with their hands raised. Collection Explore the Partisans Find interview transcripts, historical overviews, and primary source documents about a particular Jewish partisan or country. Russian partisans, one of them photographer Faye Schulman, gathering together in the forest, Naliboki Forest, Belarus, December 1944. The Molotava Brigade was a partisan group made up mostly of escaped Soviet Army POWs. The woman pictured is Faye Schulman, a Jewish woman who fled into the Naliboki forest with her camera equipment and joined the Molotova Brigade. For two years in the forest she photographed the partisan's activities, worked as medical aid and participated in the partisans raid's. Unit Resistance during the Holocaust: An Exploration of the Jewish Partisans Explore the stories of Jewish partisans that stood against Nazi oppression, genocide, and antisemitism during World War II. Russian partisans, one of them photographer Faye Schulman, gathering together in the forest, Naliboki Forest, Belarus, December 1944. The Molotava Brigade was a partisan group made up mostly of escaped Soviet Army POWs. The woman pictured is Faye Schulman, a Jewish woman who fled into the Naliboki forest with her camera equipment and joined the Molotova Brigade. For two years in the forest she photographed the partisan's activities, worked as medical aid and participated in the partisans raid's. Collection Resources for Civic Education in Massachusetts Explore resources that meet the Massachusetts History and Social Science Framework. Students working in groups in a classroom Lesson Pre-War Jewish Life in North Africa Students deepen their understanding of the diversity and complexity of Jewish life in pre-war North Africa through an analysis of images, film, and readings. A wedding portrait of family from the wedding of Terese and Nachum Cohen. More Like This Teaching Resources Learning & Events Using the strategies from Facing History is almost like an awakening. — Claudia Bautista, Santa Monica, Calif Get Updates to Your Inbox Email address Required Email Address Get Updates to Your Inbox About Our Mission & Vision Our Approach Our Impact Our Leadership Our Locations Accountability Careers Contact Us For Teachers Resource Library Civic Education English Language Arts US History Holocaust & Human Behavior Contemporary Antisemitism Teaching Strategies Learning for Teachers For Schools & Districts Programs Overview Whole School Program District Curriculum Partnerships Introductory Professional Development Learning for Leaders Support Our Work Make a Donation Leave a Legacy Gift Become a Corporate Partner Explore All Giving Options Our headquarters are located at: 89 South Street, Suite 401, Boston, MA 02111 Phone: +1-617-232-1595 | Toll-free: +1-800-856-9039 Accessibility Gift Policy Privacy Notice Terms of Use Cookie Policy Copyright © 2026 Facing History & Ourselves. We are a registered 501 (c)(3) charity. Candid Seal Platinum 2025 Charity Navigator 4 Star Charity Facing History & Ourselves Logo Facing History & Ourselves uses lessons of history to challenge teachers and their students to stand up to racism, antisemitism, and other forms of bigotry and hate. Facebook Instagram LinkedIn Youtube Sign up for a Facing History account. It's fast easy and free. Sign Up Log In Contact us We value your privacy This website or its third-party tools process personal data. You can opt out of the sale of your personal information by clicking on the “Do Not Sell or Share My Personal Information” link. Cookie Policy Do Not Sell or Share My Personal Information Skip to main content Learning & Events Resource Library Ideas This Week Search Phrase Search Sign Up Log In Select a country Facing History & Ourselves About For Teachers For Schools & Districts Support Our Work Give Breadcrumb Home Resource Library Video Everyone Has A Story - Arn Chorn-Pond Arn Chorn-Pond tells his story as a refugee from the Cambodian Genocide. Video Length 09:48 Subject History Social Studies Language English — US Updated February 27, 2014 Genocide facebook sharing x sharing email sharing Save Print Cite this resource Share to Google Classroom This resource may contain sensitive material. Close Transcript My name is Arn Chorn-Pond. When I was a child, war came to my country, Cambodia. Soldier forced me to play propaganda song for them. If I don't play the flute, the music for them, I would have died or they would have killed me. That boy was me 20 years ago. So it's good now to come back and talk to you guys again here. You could be my classmate like what, 20 years ago? It's after only one week that we settle in White Mountain home. My dad took me here. Three of us here and walk in this entrance. Three of us, very cold, I remember it. And we walked in and I felt very scared about, you know? Right away, I hear the noise. I heard the noise coming and all that. So many kids, you know? I'm blank. I have almost nothing beside knowing bathroom, rice, those three or four words that I had in my head from the refugees camp. I know that it's just a school. But I don't know what they want to do with me. I never had school in my life before the Khmer Rouge in '75. After they found out that I can run well and all of that, they decide to put me in soccer. I think I scored every game or something. We became like state championships two years or three years on the row. Before like, I'm nobody. And then they start notice us. They start, like, you know, they come and pay attention to us. The other team would trying to hit me and make fun and make fun face. In the jungle, if somebody do that to me, I shoot them. You know? That's what the Khmer Rouge taught me. You know? If somebody stare at you, they don't have to make face like that, I shoot them. I was really happy and proud of myself that I didn't do it, even though they hit me, and I didn't hit them back. In the court and even outside of the court. American kids are good in sort of like making fun. Sometimes not bad intention. You know, they come and put their, you know, like, their head or their arms, their hand on my head. They could play around. They go bang, bang, bang, bang, bang. And say, Arn, Arn, Arn. They put my name and they laughed a little bit. Cambodian people protecting their heads a lot. Their parent told them that there Buddha on your head. So nobody play with your head. You know? And the kids here did not know. I don't think the American kids, American students who were my classmate know anything about where I came from, first of all, and what I went through. So it hurts very hurtful for me. That I felt like nobody was on my side or something, you know? And that's enough for just get me crazy. There are some of the kids who really want to reach out to me. But the big problem was the language. Things were different when I began to learn some English. I have my ESL teacher, who really worked things really hard. She knew that I had something bottling up inside, and maybe about to explode. And she just, Arn, you know, learn fast. I can see it in her eyes, you know? With her, I start learning to write. And then my first speech, I think, at John the Divine church. And that was a big thing for me and for us. Yeah. That was really a kind of, you know, turning point for me to like, say, yeah. I can speak now. And people liked what I said. In that church, was, you know, like, you can hear a pin drop there, you know? And I cried, I think, that day. Because, you know, I felt like, you had power. You had some power just learning how to speak English. You know? This time is very different from having power with the guns. But I feel power just standing there and talk for the first time how I really felt inside. And I'm from Cambodia. And in 1975, when the Khmer Rouge took over Cambodia, the whole country were happy and cheering. Five days later, the Khmer Rouge announce that we have to leave the city, 100,000 people. And they said we are going to work now. And they have guns. They asked us to work to wake up at 4 o'clock to go to planting rice. They don't let us have food to eat. Everybody dying. And work at night too. To 12 o'clock. And sometime, no food for two weeks. And they also start killing people are dying on the field, especially children die on the field. They're starving to death. And after that, they separate us. And I was taken away also from my sister and my mother. I was sent to one place called Wat Ek where 500 kids were there with me. That was a execution place. The place where they kill people every day. Most of the time, they ask us to watch. And again, I was forced, when I wasn't 12 years old to fight against the Vietnamese by the very people who kill my family. And after a while, I live in a jungle, I end up in Thailand where I met my father, my foster father, who worked for the UN in the camp in Thailand. As a child, I've never-- I don't-- I've never imagined there are good people in the world. I got it that I need to involve young American kids to know about what I went through. And it's just a reflection of each other, you know? They need to know about me. I need to know about them. We all didn't know about each other. And the people who next to you. You didn't even notice them because we are too busy, you know? I was sitting next to a boy, he's a white boy. Didn't-- sometimes they didn't notice me that I have a story to share. I didn't know that he has a story to share either. So we didn't share. Most important your own story. It's not only mine. The resources you have here, the love you have here, the freedom you have here, that's a good thing. And don't take it for granted. So go out. Fly around the world and save the world. [FLUTE] Everyone Has A Story - Arn Chorn-Pond Credit: Facing History & Ourselves How to Cite This Video Facing History & Ourselves, “Everyone Has A Story - Arn Chorn-Pond”, video, last updated February 27, 2014. You might also be interested in… slide 1 to 5 of 12 Collection Saved Holocaust and Human Behavior Explore the digital version of our core resource on the Holocaust. Find classroom-ready readings, primary sources, and short documentary films that support a study of the Holocaust through the lens of human behavior. Colored painting of trees. Mini-Lesson Save Genocide Still Happens Use this mini-lesson to reflect with your students on what we can do to stop ongoing atrocities and prevent future genocides. Family photographs of victims of the Rwandan Genocide Lesson Save Identifying Raphael Lemkin's Outrage Students examine how Lemkin’s outrage over the crimes committed by the Ottoman Empire during World War I inspired him to take action. 1950 --- International lawyer Raphael Lemkin helped draft the Genocide Convention, which maps out prevention and punishment for the crime of genocide Lesson Save Exploring Raphael Lemkin's Actions: The Invention of the Word "Genocide" Students learn about the challenges Lemkin faced from the international legal community, including its lack of sufficient language to talk about crimes against humanity and civilization. A photograph of several delegates who signed the UN Genocide Convention Credit: US Holocaust Memorial Museum, gift of United Nations Lesson Save Continuing Lemkin's Legacy: What Can We Do to Prevent and Stop Genocide? Focusing on the crisis in Darfur, students examine what it means to pursue Lemkin’s mission to stop and prevent genocide in today's world. 1950 --- International lawyer Raphael Lemkin helped draft the Genocide Convention, which maps out prevention and punishment for the crime of genocide Mini-Unit Totally Unofficial: Raphael Lemkin and the Genocide Convention This unit explores the legacy of Raphael Lemkin, who coined the word "genocide" and drafted the Genocide Convention. A study of Lemkin's work helps students understand traditional world history themes such as sovereignty, diplomacy, and law; as well as deepen students’ understanding of political responses to mass violence. 1950 --- International lawyer Raphael Lemkin helped draft the Genocide Convention, which maps out prevention and punishment for the crime of genocide Collection The Nanjing Atrocities Explore this collection of lesson plans and student materials that place the Nanjing Atrocities within the larger context of World War II in East Asia. Two brothers stand outside of the remains of their house and shop in the southern section of Nanjing, which was badly damaged during the fighting. Collection Resources for Civic Education in California Explore resources that meet the California History–Social Science Framework standards. Four students sit in a circle in conversation. The student in the center speaks with their hands raised. Collection Explore the Partisans Find interview transcripts, historical overviews, and primary source documents about a particular Jewish partisan or country. Russian partisans, one of them photographer Faye Schulman, gathering together in the forest, Naliboki Forest, Belarus, December 1944. The Molotava Brigade was a partisan group made up mostly of escaped Soviet Army POWs. The woman pictured is Faye Schulman, a Jewish woman who fled into the Naliboki forest with her camera equipment and joined the Molotova Brigade. For two years in the forest she photographed the partisan's activities, worked as medical aid and participated in the partisans raid's. Unit Resistance during the Holocaust: An Exploration of the Jewish Partisans Explore the stories of Jewish partisans that stood against Nazi oppression, genocide, and antisemitism during World War II. Russian partisans, one of them photographer Faye Schulman, gathering together in the forest, Naliboki Forest, Belarus, December 1944. The Molotava Brigade was a partisan group made up mostly of escaped Soviet Army POWs. The woman pictured is Faye Schulman, a Jewish woman who fled into the Naliboki forest with her camera equipment and joined the Molotova Brigade. For two years in the forest she photographed the partisan's activities, worked as medical aid and participated in the partisans raid's. Collection Resources for Civic Education in Massachusetts Explore resources that meet the Massachusetts History and Social Science Framework. Students working in groups in a classroom Lesson Pre-War Jewish Life in North Africa Students deepen their understanding of the diversity and complexity of Jewish life in pre-war North Africa through an analysis of images, film, and readings. A wedding portrait of family from the wedding of Terese and Nachum Cohen. More Like This Teaching Resources Learning & Events The resources I’m getting from my colleagues through Facing History have been just invaluable. — Claudia Bautista, Santa Monica, Calif Get Updates to Your Inbox Email address Required Email Address Get Updates to Your Inbox About Our Mission & Vision Our Approach Our Impact Our Leadership Our Locations Accountability Careers Contact Us For Teachers Resource Library Civic Education English Language Arts US History Holocaust & Human Behavior Contemporary Antisemitism Teaching Strategies Learning for Teachers For Schools & Districts Programs Overview Whole School Program District Curriculum Partnerships Introductory Professional Development Learning for Leaders Support Our Work Make a Donation Leave a Legacy Gift Become a Corporate Partner Explore All Giving Options Our headquarters are located at: 89 South Street, Suite 401, Boston, MA 02111 Phone: +1-617-232-1595 | Toll-free: +1-800-856-9039 Accessibility Gift Policy Privacy Notice Terms of Use Cookie Policy Copyright © 2026 Facing History & Ourselves. We are a registered 501 (c)(3) charity. Candid Seal Platinum 2025 Charity Navigator 4 Star Charity Facing History & Ourselves Logo Facing History & Ourselves uses lessons of history to challenge teachers and their students to stand up to racism, antisemitism, and other forms of bigotry and hate. Facebook Instagram LinkedIn Youtube Sign up for a Facing History account. It's fast easy and free. Sign Up Log In Top Contact us [Music] the genocide indictment against general Rucker melodic divides his crimes into various phases the early part of the war round period or Northwest Bosnia then the siege of Sarajevo in the centre and then finally the enormous catalogue of crimes that took place in this place in 1995's repre Dixon [Music] the UN had declared the cerebra Nitze enclaved to be a safe area but in fact as Malad each planned its capture the dutch UN troops who were meant to defend it had been abandoned by their higher commanders Schreiber Nitze was overrun and more than 20,000 frightened Muslim women and children crammed into the Dutch base bladedge guaranteed the women and children safe passage but meanwhile his troops hunted the Menace repre Nitze [Music] they were gathered in places like this school the man who told us that never de Norwich went back with us for only the second time since serb troops brought him and hundreds of others here to kill them oh yeah be like run school you know so much really learn English just a little Vidia shrivel kunibert Austrian immigrants publish a sample in a Osho method in survived by playing dead among the corpses and at night he escaped over the mountains to government territory I [Music] was Emily never do norwich is haunted by the loss of his father brother and numerous cousins and also by the fact that he still recognizes serbs around here from those killing fields you you We value your privacy This website or its third-party tools process personal data. You can opt out of the sale of your personal information by clicking on the “Do Not Sell or Share My Personal Information” link. Cookie Policy Do Not Sell or Share My Personal Information Skip to main content Learning & Events Resource Library Ideas This Week Search Phrase Search Sign Up Log In Select a country Facing History & Ourselves About For Teachers For Schools & Districts Support Our Work Give Breadcrumb Home Ideas This Week Jacqueline Murekatete speaking into a microphone Interview with Rwandan Genocide Survivor Jacqueline Murekatete Jacqueline Murekatete details her unlikely survival during the Rwandan genocide, and why sharing survivor testimony is critical to genocide prevention. by Facing History Staff , Apr 30, 2019 Last Updated: Apr 11, 2024 facebook sharing x sharing email sharing Save Print At Facing History, our approach to genocide education includes the integration of survivor testimonies–firsthand accounts from survivors and their decendants–to help students connect more deeply with these important, challenging moments in history. Honoring survivor stories not only serves to keep these moments of collective violence and injustice from being forgotten; it also challenges individuals and groups to recognize their responsibility in protecting others in their community and the world from hatred and injustice. But bringing these testimonies into your classroom can be challenging. Originally focused on the stories of Holocaust survivors, we have a number of lessons and strategies that can be thoughtfully adapted and applied to the testimony of other survivors as well. In 2019, we spoke with internationally recognized human rights activist and Rwandan genocide survivor Jacqueline Murekatete. Murekatete is the founder of the Genocide Survivors Foundation which is dedicated to preventing genocide and supporting survivors in need. Read her story and explore our lesson, Survivor Testimony and the Legacy of Memory, and on-demand professional learning webinar, Using Survivor Testimony in the Classroom, to help bring her story and others like it into your lessons and conversations about genocide. NOTE: Interview transcript has been edited for clarity. Facing History: For readers who are unfamiliar with the Rwandan genocide, what are some high-level details that you think are important for them to know and understand? Jacqueline Murekatete: I think that it’s very important for people to recognize that, like any genocide, the genocide in Rwanda did not happen overnight. Hutus did not get up one morning out of nowhere and want to take up machetes and murder their Tutsi neighbors. The crime of genocide—generally and in the case of Rwanda—is a crime that is preceded by a series of events. In the case of Rwanda, the 1994 genocide against Tutsis rose from years of state-sanctioned discrimination against Tutsis n every aspect of the Rwandan society. Growing up in Rwanda, we had an ID card that was introduced in Rwanda by the Belgians to divide the Rwandan population along ethnic lines. But unfortunately for us, this ID system was continued in post-independence Rwanda by Hutu regimes who felt they could use this same ID system as a way to monopolize power by discriminating against Tutsis. So growing up in Rwanda, I was well aware even before the genocide that Tutsis—my ethnic group—were considered second-class citizens. Between the years 1990 and 1994, you saw a series of dehumanization campaigns which portrayed Tutsis as snakes—as cockroaches that needed to be exterminated. Extremists would come on the radio and write in the newspapers telling Hutu neighbors that Rwanda can become a prosperous country once they have gotten rid of the Tutsi population. That’s what I mean when I say that the genocide was preceded by this mental preparation and indoctrination, a genocide that the government knew they were going to carry out. There are reports now of machetes being imported to Rwanda as early as two to three years before the genocide; and videos and reports of Hutu citizens—particularly youth—being trained to carry out the genocide. So it’s very important to me whenever I discuss this to say that genocide happens in a process. It doesn’t happen overnight, there’s always an opportunity for people and for the international community to intervene. The genocide [in Rwanda] is now known as “the preventable genocide” because, again, there were years of preparation and many opportunities for the UN Security Council, for example, to intervene but there was no political will at that time. ...it doesn’t happen overnight, there’s always an opportunity for people and for the international community to intervene. — Jacqueline Murekatete, human rights activist and Rwandan genocide survivor Facing History: Can you share a little bit about your own experience during and after this genocide as someone who lost your entire family but survived. JM: My story of survival is a long one, and I’ve told it many times. If anyone wants to hear more of my story in its entirety, they can watch a number of videos online. When we, survivors, look back at all of the times we faced death, we realize that it was nothing less than a miracle that we survived. My grandmother and I initially ran away to a county office where we thought we would be protected and managed to leave before we were killed. My uncle found a Hutu family who hid us for about a week until we were discovered and came face to face with armed Hutu men who wanted to kill us. To this day, I have no logical explanation as to how we survived that day. I remember the Hutu men who were hiding us kept pleading on our behalf, “how can you say these are the enemies of Rwanda?" After that discovery, I would soon find myself in an orphanage because the man hiding us was told he would have to kick us out of his house because when those men came back, they would not spare our lives. So he told my grandmother of an orphanage that was owned by Italian priests [who] had made the choice to stay in Rwanda during the genocide to try to protect children and risked their own lives. Facing History: In an interview with the Brooklyn Reader, you described the Hutu man and the Italian priests who hid you as “upstanders”. Can you talk about what that word means to you? JM: A big part of my work is helping people to understand that whether you look at the Holocaust or the genocide in Rwanda, or other genocides that have taken place, you recognize that during these darkest times in human history, people made choices. I very much love Facing History & Ourselves’ slogan: “People make choices and choices make history.” This is a fact; this is what happens. When you look at the genocide in Rwanda, people made choices to participate in the genocide, people made choices to be bystanders, and then you had a few people who made the choice to be upstanders. This was not an easy choice but people made it and at the end of the day, if more Hutus had stood up and become upstanders—rather than perpetrators and bystanders—I have no doubt in my mind that the genocide would not have happened. So part of my work is really trying to increase the number of people who become upstanders when they find themselves in a situation where people are being targeted. I know that if it wasn’t for those two Italian priests in Rwanda—or even the Hutu family that hid me in Rwanda, then many other survivors and I wouldn’t be here today. They are people who stood up and today, I try to increase the number of people who stand up to injustices. Facing History: Can you talk a bit now about the mission and work of your organization, the Genocide Survivors Foundation? JM: The mission of the Genocide Survivors Foundation is twofold: genocide prevention education; and raising funds to provide comprehensive services to genocide survivors starting in Rwanda, but hopefully being able to work in other countries that have gone through genocide. The educational component is carried out through my lectures at schools, workshops, conferences, churches, and synagogues. And in terms of supporting survivors, we work with local survivor's organizations to raise funds to provide educational services, economic empowerment services, and healthcare services. Now we are trying to deal with the trauma issues that many survivors are faced with. I always say that the best way we can honor the victims of genocide—those people who lost their lives in 1994—is by making sure that their widows and orphans are taken care of and support them in their ongoing struggle to rebuild their lives. The second way is by working hard to prevent the crime of genocide from continuing to happen. Facing History: Earlier in the interview, you mentioned that rape was a component of the genocide. With that in mind, what inspired you to support the Women Genocide Survivors Retreat within your organization and what does it entail? JM: During the genocide in Rwanda, rape was used as a weapon of genocide. It was [my friend and fellow survivor Liliane Pari Umuhoza] who proposed the idea for the Women Survivors Retreat. What [the retreat] does is brings together women who were raped during the genocide—many of whom live with HIV/AIDS and bore children out of those rapes, and are trying hard to provide for those children. For most survivors, even having the opportunity to talk about what happened to you, having a listening ear, and empathy and understanding from people helps to restore your dignity and sense of self-worth because there’s nothing more difficult than going through something like that and then finding yourself alone and suffering in silence. Going a step further, the retreat also provides them with tools and resources to help them better their lives. [genocide is] a crime that can happen anywhere and to anyone given the right conditions… It begins with words, it begins with dehumanization, it begins with propaganda... — Jacqueline Murekatete Facing History: Do you have any closing thoughts for our audience? JM: For me, the most important message is people have to see genocide, not as something that happens far away and to people we don’t know. We have to see it as a crime that can happen anywhere and to anyone given the right conditions. It begins with words, it begins with dehumanization, it begins with propaganda. And when we see those things happening in our country, that is the time to speak up because once people start the actual killing, sometimes it’s too late. It’s always important for me to emphasize that prevention is something all individuals can participate in. We all have the power to bring about positive change in our world and in our communities. You have to show up and you have to vote for those ideas that respect diversity and human rights. My hope is that people can realize that no matter who they are, they can make a positive difference; it’s just a matter of deciding that they want to get involved and there’s no better time for us to step up our prevention efforts than today. You might also be interested in… slide 1 to 5 of 12 Featured Resource Save 18 Teacher Resources on Native American History and Culture by Kaitlin Smith Oct 30, 2023 Below are 18 resources that middle and high school teachers can turn to when developing lesson plans related to the roles of Native American peoples in American history and contemporary life. These resources include online exhibitions at the Smithsonian; the Smithsonian’s Native Knowledge 360° Educational Initiative; the work of the Mitchell and Hood Museums; and the growing work of Facing History in these thematic areas. Three members of the Sioux tribe pose in Indian Village, 1898. Professional Learning Save Echoes of the Holocaust: Eugenics and Disability in the Time of the Holocaust On-Demand Virtual This webinar featured Dr. Patricia Heberer Rice, senior historian at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, and explored how the Nazis used eugenics in their pursuit of “Aryan genetic purity”. Teacher and Students Insight Save Books on Genocide, Resistance, and Resilience by Kaitlin Smith Apr 1, 2021 Facing History recommends the following titles to expand your awareness of atrocities past and present and to hear from the people who’ve lived them. Numbers inside the New England Holocaust Memorial Insight Save Education in Dealing with the Past: Can We Prevent Atrocity from Happening Again? by Clara Ramírez-Barat May 10, 2016 Clara Ramírez-Barat explores innovative strategies to engage young people in transitional justice and peace-building efforts through education. Paper cutout face of diverse culture together with scales of justice to convey racial equality and law and order Insight Save How Mass Media Saved Thousands during the Armenian Genocide by Brian Fong Apr 24, 2018 Mass media during the 20th century played an important part in saving lives during the Armenian Genocide, which can remind us how we are also poised to use modern media tools to create change in today's world. Two posters for the American Committee for Relief in the Near East Perspective Advocating for Genocide Prevention: A Q&A With Mike Brand by Laura Taveres May 17, 2018 Genocide prevention advocate Mike Brand talks about the power young people hold in helping to prevent genocides. World Refugee Day image. Featured Resource Genocide Matters by Karen Murphy Apr 21, 2016 Facing History's Karen Murphy discusses why teaching genocide matters, especially in light of recent declarations of genocide in Iraq and Syria. Close-up on dictionary definition of the word genocide including key descriptive words. Professional Learning A Roadmap to Success for Teaching Canadian History Aug 25, 2026 | 12 - 1:30pm EDT Virtual Gain teaching and pacing plans alongside resources from Facing History to support teaching Canadian History in ON, MB, and BC. Students sitting at their desk. Featured Resource New Resources for Teaching Holocaust Literature in Grades 7-12 by Facing History & Ourselves Jan 14, 2026 Navigate the historical and emotional complexity of teaching Holocaust literature units with care and depth using Facing History’s proven approach. covers of several notable holocaust books Professional Learning Teaching about the Holocaust through Literature Summer Seminar Aug 18 - 19, 2026 Atlantic City, NJ This 2-day in person seminar will spotlight our new Holocaust literature collection and explore lessons on historical context, testimony, and memory. Teacher and Students Professional Learning California Teachers Collaborative for Holocaust and Genocide Education: Summer Institute 2026 Jun 21 - 24, 2026 Los Angeles, CA Join Facing History - and 14 educational organizations - for the fourth annual California Teachers Collaborative Summer Institute. This four day institute is for California high school and middle school educators who seek to enhance their teaching of the Holocaust and genocide. This event will occur in person. Flyter for the California Teachers Collaborative for Holocaust and Genocide Education 2026 Summer Institute. Insight How to Choose the Right Images When Teaching about Genocide by Adam Strom Apr 17, 2024 Consider this helpful criteria when using challenging imagery as part of genocide education in your classroom. Turk Soldiers Are Convoying Armenian People For Execution, April 1915 More Like This Ideas this Week Donate now and together we'll build a better world Make a 100% tax-deductible donation today and you'll help us reach even more teachers and students around the world, giving them the tools to fight back against hatred and bigotry. Gift Amount $ 25 $ 100 $ 250 $ 500 $ 1000 Other Other $ Minimum $ 10 Donate Get Updates to Your Inbox Email address Required Email Address Get Updates to Your Inbox About Our Mission & Vision Our Approach Our Impact Our Leadership Our Locations Accountability Careers Contact Us For Teachers Resource Library Civic Education English Language Arts US History Holocaust & Human Behavior Contemporary Antisemitism Teaching Strategies Learning for Teachers For Schools & Districts Programs Overview Whole School Program District Curriculum Partnerships Introductory Professional Development Learning for Leaders Support Our Work Make a Donation Leave a Legacy Gift Become a Corporate Partner Explore All Giving Options Our headquarters are located at: 89 South Street, Suite 401, Boston, MA 02111 Phone: +1-617-232-1595 | Toll-free: +1-800-856-9039 Accessibility Gift Policy Privacy Notice Terms of Use Cookie Policy Copyright © 2026 Facing History & Ourselves. We are a registered 501 (c)(3) charity. Candid Seal Platinum 2025 Charity Navigator 4 Star Charity Facing History & Ourselves Logo Facing History & Ourselves uses lessons of history to challenge teachers and their students to stand up to racism, antisemitism, and other forms of bigotry and hate. Facebook Instagram LinkedIn Youtube Sign up for a Facing History account. It's fast easy and free. Sign Up Log In Top Contact us Document A The 1948 War Two Narratives Israeli Perspective: The War of Independence In 1947, the UN General Assembly approved Resolution 181 (the Partition Plan) calling for two independent states to be established. Members of the Jewish community danced in the streets to celebrate the creation of a Jewish state. But, shortly afterward, Palestinian Arabs and volunteers from Arab countries that rejected the partition plan attacked, and the war began. This war is known as the War of Independence because it resulted in the state of Israel. Local Arab troops and volunteers attacked isolated Jewish communities, Jews in cities with mixed populations, and Jews on the roads. They also employed terror tactics—all Jewish people, settlements, and property were considered legitimate targets. The most serious terror attacks were against Haifa oil refineries, where 39 Jews were murdered in December 1947. Before Britain withdrew from the country, the Israeli leadership decided it had to change its tactics from defensive to offensive and prepared Plan Daled. The purpose was to secure control of the areas the U.N. Partition Plan had said were part of the Jewish State. In the beginning of the war, Arab residents started leaving their communities in the land of Israel. Most of the Jews welcomed the flight of the Arabs. Using Plan Daled, Israeli forces also began to deport Arabs. However, not all Arabs were deported and there were no high-­‐level political orders to do so. Most Arabs fled because of their own fears, not in response to the actions of Israelis. During the course of the war about 370 Arab villages were destroyed. On May 14, 1948, the Jewish leaders met to announce the establishment of the State of Israel. At midnight that night Arab armies invaded the new state. The various defensive forces that later united into the Israeli Defense Forces (IDF) tried to block the invading Arab armies. After a month of fighting all sides were exhausted and accepted the U.N. call for a one-­‐month cease-­‐fire. After the cease-­‐fire ended, fighting started again for 10 days before another cease-­‐fire was signed. In October 1948, the IDF launched another attack. Palestinian Perspective: Al-­‐Nakba (The Catastrophe) In 1947, the U.N. General Assembly passed resolution 181, which called for the partition of Palestine into two states, one Arab and the other Jewish. This was the start to the countdown for the establishment of the state of Israel on May 15, 1948, and the 1948 Catastrophe, which uprooted and dispersed the Palestinian people. The Catastrophe was: 1. the defeat of the Arab armies in the 1948 Palestine war; 2. their acceptance of the truce; 3. the displacement of most the Palestinian people from their cities and villages; and 4. the emergence of the Palestinian refugee problem. Britain bears most of the responsibility for the defeat of the Palestinian people in 1948. During the time it controlled Palestine, from 1917-­‐1948, Britain did all it could to suppress the Palestinian people and to arrest and deport their leaders. The British did not allow Palestinians to exercise their right to defend themselves and their land against the Zionist movement. The British allowed the Zionist movement to have its own armed brigade attached to the British Army. This brigade took part in battles during World War II and acquired training and experience in the techniques of war. Because of this, the Jewish military was superior to the Palestinian army during the 1948 war. The fighting that began in 1948 quickly turned into an unequal conflict. Zionist forces were organized, armed, and trained—superior to armies from Palestine and other Arab countries. The results of the Catastrophe, from which Palestinians still suffer, are not simple at all. The word “catastrophe” (nakba) actually expresses what happened to this nation: the assassination of rights, murder of the land, and uprooting of human beings. This did not occur by chance. The destruction of 418 Palestinian villages is the best evidence for the brutality to which Palestinians were exposed. Some 1,400,000 people inhabited Palestine in 1948. After the Catastrophe, about 750,000 Palestinians were left homeless. Families were separated. Document A The 1948 War Two Narratives The first election of the Israeli parliament in January 1949 set the state of Israel well on its way to becoming an independent and democratic country. The U.N. mediated the armistice agreements that were signed by Israel and the Arab countries. The agreements meant the end of direct fighting, but did not bring peace to the area. Israel achieved its independence thanks to its organizational ability and the remarkable mobilization of the entire Jewish population: tens of thousands of citizens and soldiers participating in the fighting. Suddenly they found themselves exiled from their homes in an alien world that regarded them as a different kind of frightening human being—refugees! Instead of investigating the reasons for the forced migration and displacement of the Palestinian people and working to find a solution to the problem, all the international community did was provide them with humanitarian assistance. Article 11 of UN Resolution 194 (December 1948) states that refugees wishing to return to their homes and live peacefully should be allowed to do so as soon as possible, and that compensation should be paid for the property of those who decide not to return. Despite these recommendations, Palestinians continue to suffer in refugee camps in Lebanon, Jordan, Syria and elsewhere around the world. 1 1 Adwan, Sami, Dan Bar-­‐On, and Eyal Naveh. 2012. Peace Research Institute in the Middle East. Side by Side: Parallel Histories of Israel/Palestine. The New Press. played a key role in the Middle East. Great strains are clearly visible between the forees of westernization and tradition. Some Muslim countries, like Iran, have rejected Western values-though not Western technology. Some Muslims would like to abolish secular political systems and return to Islamic principles as a basis for government, including laws based on the Qur'an and Sharia. Cultural strains in Saudi Arabia often stém from when many people moved to cities because of the oil industry. This weakened the traditional extended family structure. Şome-Saudi religious leaders worry about the influence of Western ideas, the place of women and their education in an Islamic society, and the effects of modern technology, such as television and the Internet. Its conservative ruling family remains in control, but many Western ideas have taken hold in many areas. Because of global communications, Saudis are more aware of the freedoms available in other countries. Conditions for women vary greatly in the Islamic world. In more secular nations, women won the right to vote: Turkey in 1930; Syria, Libya and Egypt in the 1950s. In Iran, under the shah, women gained the right to vote. The Iranian Revolution of 1979 placed many restrictions on women, but they still had the right to vote. Saudi Arabia granted women suffrage in 2005, but women did not have the right to have a driver's license and drive on Saudi roads until 2018. START HERE A Jewish State Among Arab Nations After World War II and the Holocaust, there was increased support for a Jewish state in Palestine. However, both Jews and Palestinian Arabs claimed a right to the land of Palestine. Jews claimed that they were entitled to return to a land they had once ruled 3,000 years ago. The Palestinian Arabs claimed they were entitled to the land they had been living on since Roman times. Creation of Israel In 1947, the United Nations drew up a plan to partition Palestine into an Arab state and a Jewish state. Jews accepted the plan, but Arabs did not. In 1948, Great Britain withdrew, and Jews proclaimed the independent state of Israel, which was recognized by both the United States and the Soviet Union. Israel developed rapidly. Between 1948 and the mid-1980s, nearly two million Jews migrated to Israel, some to escape persecution. The government built towns for settlers. A skilled workforce expanded the economy. American aid helped Israel as well. Palestinians and Arab-Israeli Wars When the state of Israel was created, Arab nations vowed to drive the Jews out and restore Palestine as an Arab nation. Since 1948, there have been four full-scale wars and several smaller conflicts between Israel and the Arab states. War of Independence The first Arab-Israeli war occurred in 1948 when six Arab states-Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Saudi Arabia-invaded Israel. Israel defeated the invaders and gained control of land that doubled its size. Over 700,000 Arabs became refugees. Most were refused entry by neighboring Arab countries and were placed in temporary refugee camps, which became permanent over time. The poverty and discrimination experienced by these Palestinian Arabs fueled anger. Many dreamed of an Arab Palestinian state. Thousands of Jews who lived in Arab lands were expelled and migrated to Israel under the "law of return." Arab States and Israel in the Cold War In the 1950s, Gamal Abdel Nasser emerged as a leader of Egypt. He was determined to end Western power in Egypt. In 1956, he nationalized the Suez Canal, ending British control. He received support from In what ways has the issue of maintaining traditionai values and practices conflicted with the forces of modernization in the Islamic world? Why did support for a Jewish homeland in Palestine increase after World War il? Key Themes and Concepts Global Connections and Exchange Since 1948, people have migrated to Israel from ail over the world. As Eastern European communism and the Soviet Union collapsed, many JewS moved from Eastern Europе to israel. How did the Arabs react to the creation of the state of Israei? The Modern Era: The Middle East and Africa 225 the Soviet Union and used Soviet money to build the Aswan High Dam. Egypt took part in two wars against the Jewish state of Israel. While the Soviet Union supported Egypt, the United States supported Israel. Further Wars Another war was fought over the Suez Canal in 1956. In 1967, during the Six-Day War, Israel overran the Sinai Peninsula, the Golan Heights on the Syrian border, and East Jerusalem. After the Six-Day War, leaders of eight Arab states met in Khartoum and issued the "3 No's"-no recognition of Israel, no negotiations with Israel, and no peace with Israel. In 1973, Egypt and Syria launched a war against Israel on the Jewish high holy day of Yom Kippur. The Israelis won each of these wars. Palestine. Liberation Organization In 1964, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) was formed to destroy Israel and win self-rule for the Palestinians. Led by Yasir Arafat, the PLO used terrorist tactics and fought a guerilla war against Israelis at home and abroad. Many Israeli civilians were killed by PLO terrorists. Intifada In 1987, young Palestinians, who had grown up in the Israeli-occupied West Bank and Gaza, and who were frustrated with the lack of progress in gaining a Palestinian state, began widespread acts of civil disobedience called the intifacia, or "uprising." Palestinians used boycotts, demonstrations, and attacks on Israeli soldiers by unarmed teenagers throwing rocks and bombs. The intifada continued into the 1990s. Crackdowns by the Israelis led to a wave of sympathy throughout the world for the Palestinians. Israel's Changing Borders Preparing tor the Regents Practice your map skills by answering the following questions.. 1. What countries border Israel? of 1947 UN Partition LEBANON- Israel Àfter 1948-1949 War LEBAMONSYRIA SYRIA Haife MEDITERRANEAN SEA Jerusai Said MEDITERRANEAN SEA Tel Aviv Jerusalem Port Sa Gaza DEAD SEA ISRAEL JORDAN Cai 2.What areas were gained by Israel after the 1967 war? Suez Agaba SAUDI ARABIA 囉 Jewish State EGYPT Ca Cairo Elet Agaba SAUDE ARA身 State of JORDAN EGYPT W Arab State Sharm el SI Shann el Sheikh Israel After 1967 War LEBANON Israel Today Haifs SYRIA MEDTEXKA MEDITERRANEAN MEDITERRANEAN Tel Aviv SEA 52 TetAviv Jerusalem Port Said Gaza DEAD SE ISRAEL Cann Cairo JORDAN erucaiam Port Sald Gara DEADISEA ISRAEL JORDAM 226 Topic 13 EGYPT Sharm el Sheikh Cairo SAUDI ARABIA 國 Occupied by Israal EGYPT Occupied by srael Polestinian Conirol Israel's Changing Borders Modern israel was established in 1948. Israel and its Arab neighbors fought three wars-in 1956, 1967, and 1973. in these wars, Israel defeated Arab forces and gained more land. Attempts at Peace Numerous attempts have been made to resolve the situation in Palestine. Limited progress has been made, however. Camp David Accords In 1978, President Jimmy Carter invited President Anwar Sadat of Egypt and Prime Minister Menachem Begin of Israel to discuss terms of peace. The resulting treaty, the Camp David Accords, was based on the concept of "land for peace." Israel returned the Sinai Peninsula to Egypt in exchange for Egypt's recognition of Israel's right to exist. Sadat was later assassinated by a group of Muslim extremists angered by Egypt's peace with Israel. Osio Peace Accords In 1993, direct talks were held for the first time between Israel and the PLO. Arafat had renounced the use of terrorism, which opened the door for Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin to sign an agreement giving Palestinians in the Gaza Strip and West Bank limited self-rule. A year later, Jordan also made a peace agreement with Israel. In 1995, Rabin was assassinated by right-wing Jewish extremists, opposed to making concessions to the Palestinians. A Roadmap of Peace Israelis continued to build settlements in lands that Palestinians clain while Palestinian riots and suicide bombings increased. In 2002, Israeli military forces invaded Palestinian-ruled areas that were centers of terrorist activities. They arrested or assassinated PLO and other Palestinian leaders. Many Palestinian civilians also died. The United States, United Nations, European Union, and Russia outlined a roadmap of peace. This plan would establish a Palestinian state, but the PLO had to make democratic reforms and end the use of terrorism. Peace prospects improved when Palestinian leader Yasir Arafat died in 2004. Israel and Its Neighbors In 2005, when cease-fire talks began between Israel and the Palestinians, Israel began withdrawing settlers and soldiers from Gaza and parts of the West Bank. In a 2006 election, Palestinians elected Hamas, a party known for both its social services and its hard-line policies toward Israel. Hamas carried out its anti-Israeli policies using terrorists' methods, such as rockets and suicide bombings, to create chaos in Gaza before it assumed control. To try to end Hamas's attacks, Israel and Egypt closed Gaza's borders. Economic sanctions destroyed the fragile Gaza economy, but a new economy developed using tunnels between Egypt and Gaza. In 2008, Israel launched an attack on Hamas in Gaza. When it ended, much of Gaza was in ruins but Hamas remained in control. It reconciled with the less militant Fatah Party of the PLO to form a new joint Palestinian government for both Gaza and the West Bank. In 2011, the Palestinians asked the UN to give it full membership. Israel and its allies opposed this move, but in December 2012, the UN voted to give Palestine non-Member Observer State status. In 2015, Pope Francis recognized the Palestinian state. In recent years, Israel has lost support from its neighbors. The downfall of President Mubarak of Egypt meant the loss of an ally, although the peace treaty remains in effect. Because of repeated incidents in Gaza with many civilian deaths, Israel has lost more international support. The war in Syria, one of Israel's most vocal enemies, leaves Israelis concerned about what will happen no matter who ends up in power. Israel fears a nuclear attack from Iran if its nuçlear program is not stopped. Israel's isolation in the world has increased and peace ialks have halted. A two-state solution to the ongoing conflict has been proposed. Three obstacles to peace are (1) the status of Palestinian refugees, (2) the governance of the city of Jerusalem, and (3) Jewish settlements in the West Bank. Explain the ongoing Israeli-Palestinian conflict and the obstacles to a lasting peace. The Modern Era: The Middle East and Africa 227 AP World History Unit 6: Global Conflicts Middle East Directions: Watch the video from Crash Course linked here: Conflict in Israel and Palestine through 2015: Crash Course World History 2. Read the 3 page summary of developments from 1948-2017 entitled, “A Jewish State Among Arab Nations” linked here. 3. Read the Israeli and Palestinian perspectives on the War of 1948 linked here Questions: Describe or Define the terms listed below: Balfour Declaration: 1917 statement promising homeland for Jews in Palestine 1948 War: War that began after UN partition plan and formation of Jewish state Palestinian Liberation Organization: Organization founded by Arafat, used violent and nonviolent resistance 1967 War: Alao called 6 day war, when Jewish state fought multiple Arab countries and won and then annexed some parts Camp David Accords: Agreement between Egypt and Jewish state where Egypt recognized them in exchange for the teturn of the Sinai 1st Intifada (1987-1991): The first uprising against Jewish control Hamas: Resistance group formed during first intifada, Ahmed Yassin was founder Oslo Accords: Peace agreements between Jewish state residents and Palestinians 2nd Intifada (2000-2005): More violent uprising 2.How can the same historical event be known as a War of Independence and a Catastrophe? It can be viewed differently as: the Palestinians were occupied and their land was taken from them the “Israelis” view it as independence as it resulted in the modern day Jewish state 3. What are the main differences between the historical narratives recounted by each side? Some of the main differencee are: Arabs or Jews attacked firet Partition was unfair for Palestinian reside ts or not Many Palestinians fled due to fear vs oppressuon 4. List 3-5 established facts that are verified in both narratives. Arab armies and Jewish armies fought Palestinian villages were destroyed Many Palestniwns befame refugees afterr the war 5. How did the actions of the Israeli defense forces and the Jewish community affect the Palestinians and neighboring Arab Countries? Give a specific example. It increased tensions. A speciric example is Plan Daled where the Jewish state took land and deported Arabs 6. How did the actions of the Arab armies and the Palestinian community affect the Jewish population? Give a specific example. They attacked Jewish communities in the state in retailation. A specific example is the attack on Haifa oil refineries which killed some Jews. AP World Name: Unit 6: Global Conflicts Iran Revolution HW Due: 5/15/26 Directions: Read the passage on the Iran Revolution from World History: Patterns and Interactions Answer the questions in your notebooks. Questions: Write a definition or description for the terms/people below Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi: former Iranian leader before Iranian Revolution Prime Minister Mossadeq: former prime minister of Iran, opposed foreign influence, US got rid of him and brought the Shah back Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini: former Iranian leader after Iranian Revolution, brought Khomeinist ideology Iran Hostage Crisis: Crisis where US embassy in Tehran was captured, over 60 Americans held hostage for 444 days Discuss the causes and effects of the 1979 Iran revolution in 3-4 sentences. The revolution was caused by anger over Western influence, support of the Shah by the US, poverty, and opposition from Shiite leaders. Ayatullat Khomeini (la) inspired protests and riots against the Shah’s government. In 1979, the Shah fled from Iran, and Khomeini established a Shiite state. This led up to more anti-US policies and the Iran Hostage Crisis. Confrontations in the Middle East As the map on page 984 shows, Cold War confrontations continued to erupt around the globe. The oil-rich Middle East attracted both superpowers. Religious and Secular Values Clash in Iran Throughout the Middle East, oil industry wealth fueled a growing clash between traditional Islamic values and modern Western materialism. In no country was this cultural conflict more dramatically shown than in Iran (Persia before 1935). After World War II, Iran’s leader, Shah Mohammed Reza Pahlavi (pah•luh•vee), embraced Western governments and wealthy Western oil companies. Iranian nationalists resented these foreign alliances and united under Prime Minister Muhammed Mossadeq (moh•sah•DEHK). They nationalized a British-owned oil company and, in 1953, forced the shah to flee. Fearing Iran might turn to the Soviets for support, the United States helped restore the shah to power. The United States Supports Secular Rule With U.S. support, the shah westernized his country. By the end of the 1950s, Iran’s capital, Tehran, featured gleaming skyscrapers, foreign banks, and modern factories. Millions of Iranians, however, still lived in extreme poverty. The shah tried to weaken the political influence of Iran’s conservative Muslim leaders, known as ayatollahs (eye•uh• TOH•luhz), who opposed Western influences. The leader of this religious opposition, Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini (koh• MAY•nee), was living in exile. Spurred by his taperecorded messages, Iranians rioted in every major city in late 1978. Faced with overwhelming opposition, the shah fled Iran in 1979. A triumphant Khomeini returned to establish an Islamic state and to export Iran’s militant form of Islam. Khomeini’s Anti-U.S. Policies Strict adherence to Islam ruled Khomeini’s domestic policies. But hatred of the United States, because of U.S. support for the shah, was at the heart of his foreign policy. In 1979, with the ayatollah’s blessing, young Islamic revolutionaries seized the U.S. embassy in Tehran. They took more than 60 Americans hostage and demanded the United States force the shah to face trial. Most hostages remained prisoners for 444 days before being released in 1981. Khomeini encouraged Muslim radicals elsewhere to overthrow their secular governments. Intended to unify Muslims, this policy heightened tensions between Iran and its neighbor and territorial rival, Iraq. A military leader, Saddam Hussein (hoo•SAYN), governed Iraq as a secular state. Analyzing Motives Why did the United States support the shah of Iran? IRAN AFGHANISTAN ▼ Ayatollah Khomeini (inset) supported the taking of U.S. hostages by Islamic militants in Tehran in 1979. 986 Chapter 33 Page 5 of 6 Reconstructing the Postwar World 987 TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. • Third World • nonaligned nations • Fidel Castro • Anastasio Somoza • Daniel Ortega • Ayatollah Ruholla Khomeini USING YOUR NOTES 2. Which confrontation had the most lasting significance? MAIN IDEAS 3. How was the Cuban Missile Crisis resolved? 4. What was significant about the 1990 elections in Nicaragua? 5. Why did the Soviet Union invade Afghanistan? SECTION ASSESSMENT 4 WRITING AN OPINION PAPER Research the effects of the U.S. trade embargo on Cuba. Write a two-paragraph opinion paper on whether it would be in the best interests of the United States to lift that embargo. CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 6. MAKING INFERENCES What advantages and disadvantages might being nonaligned have offered a developing nation during the Cold War? 7. COMPARING What similarities do you see among U.S. actions in Nicaragua, Cuba, and Iran? 8. ANALYZING CAUSES What were the reasons that Islamic fundamentalists took control of Iran? 9. WRITING ACTIVITY For either Cuba, Nicaragua, or Iran, write an annotated time line of events discussed in this section. REVOLUTION CONNECT TO TODAY Country Conflict Cuba Nicaragua Iran Comparing In what ways were U.S. involvement in Vietnam and Soviet involvement in Afghanistan similar? War broke out between Iran and Iraq in 1980. The United States secretly gave aid to both sides because it did not want the balance of power in the region to change. The Soviet Union, on the other hand, had long been a supporter of Iraq. A million Iranians and Iraqis died in the war before the UN negotiated a ceasefire in 1988. The Superpowers Face Off in Afghanistan For several years following World War II, Afghanistan maintained its independence from both the neighboring Soviet Union and the United States. In the 1950s, however, Soviet influence in the country began to increase. In the late 1970s, a Muslim revolt threatened to topple Afghanistan’s Communist regime. This revolt led to a Soviet invasion in 1979. The Soviets expected to prop up the Afghan Communists and quickly withdraw. Instead, just like the United States in Vietnam, the Soviets found themselves stuck. And like the Vietcong in Vietnam, rebel forces outmaneuvered a military superpower. Supplied with American weapons, the Afgan rebels, called mujahideen, or holy warriors, fought on. The United States had armed the rebels because they considered the Soviet invasion a threat to Middle Eastern oil supplies. President Jimmy Carter warned the Soviets against any attempt to gain control of the Persian Gulf. To protest the invasion, he stopped U.S. grain shipments to the Soviet Union and ordered a U.S. boycott of the 1980 Moscow Olympics. In the 1980s, a new Soviet president, Mikhail Gorbachev, acknowledged the war’s devastating costs. He withdrew all Soviet troops by 1989. By then, internal unrest and economic problems were tearing apart the Soviet Union itself. The Taliban Islamic religious students, or taliban, were among the mujahideen rebels who fought the Soviet occupation of Afghanistan. Various groups of students loosely organized themselves during a civil war among mujahideen factions that followed the Soviet withdrawal in 1989. In 1996, one of these groups, called the Taliban, seized power and established an Islamic government. At first, they were popular among many Afghans. But they imposed a repressive rule especially harsh on women, and failed to improve the lives of the people. They also gave sanctuary to international Islamic terrorists. In 2001, an anti-terrorist coalition led by the United States drove them from power. Page 6 of 6 AP World Name: Unit 6: Global Conflicts Cold War (Latin America) HW Due: 5/13/26 Directions: Read pages 751-754 in Spodek (see below). Read the excerpts on Argentina and Women in Nicaragua from Traditions and Encounters Answer the questions in your notebooks. You can copy the charts into your notebook. Questions: Write a definition or description for the terms/people in the chart below. Term/Person Definition/ Description Sandinistas/ FSLN Revolutionary movement in Nicaragua, mostly students, named after Augusto Cesar Sardino. Fought guerilla revolt against Somoza dictatorship and gained power in 1979 Salvador Allende Socialist president of Chile, elected in 1970. Expanded agrarian reform, nationalized industries and increased social programs before being overthrown and killed after a military coup in 1973. Augusto Pinochet Chilean general, led the 1973 military coup against Allende. Ruled Chile as a military dictator, jailed and killed opponents, but later restored the economy with US help. Fidel Castro Leader of Cuban Revolution, overthrew dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1959. Created close ties with USSR and later created a Marxist-Leninist gov in Cuba (he at first tried to work with the US). Che Guevara Close friend/apprentice of Castro, helped spread guerilla movements against imperialism and neocolonialism throughout Latin America and Africa Cuban Missile Crisis 1962 confrontation between US and USSR after USSR put nukes in Cuba. The crisis ended when the USSR removed them in exchange for the US not putting nukes in Turkiye and not invading Cuba again. Juan Peron Argentine president, elected in 1946. He promoted nationalism, industrialization, support for workers, and protection from foreign economic control. Evita Peron Wife of Juan, popular first lady of Argentina. She supported poor through charity work and political work and was seen as Santa Evita after her death. “Mothers of the Disappeared” Mothers and grandmothers in Argentina who protested against the military dictatorship after many people disappearing during a war which lasted from 1976 to 1983. Why did the United States interfere with Latin American governments? What were the results? Country Why did the United States interfere? What was the result of the United States’ interference? Nicaragua 1909 US opposed Nicaragua giving economic concessions to countries other than US and wanted to keep their influence in the area. US Marines occupied Nicaragua until 1933. Sandino fought a guerilla war against them. Somoza later took control with the support of the US and created a dictatorship. Nicaragua 1980s* (Ronald Reagan was president from 1981-1989) Reagan wished to destabilize Sandista gov bc it was viewed as communist. US funded and trained Anti Sandista forces. Civil war continud until neogigated settlement and elections ended this conflict. About 60k people died. Chile US opposed Allende’s socialist reforms and nationalization of industries. CIA was brought in to help overthrow him. CIA funded opposition groups and strikes. In 1973, military overthrew Allende, and Pinochet established a military dictatorship. Cuba US viewed Castro as a Communist threat bc he was allied with the USSR US supported failed Bay of Pigs invasion. Later, Cuban Missile Crisis almost caused a nuclear war before USSR removed the nukes from Cuba. Why did Fidel Castro overthrow the government of Cuba in 1959? Fidel Castro overthrew the government of Cuba as he wished to end US influence and control in Cuba. State three ways women were involved in politics in Latin America between 1900 and 1990. Nicaraguan women formed Association of Women Concerned about National Crisis and fought with Sandinistas against Somoza Regime Women in Chile pressured the military to remove Allende bc of economic instability and shortages The Mothers of the Disappeared in Argentina protested against the military dictatorship Latin America During the Cold War Excerpted from Spodek Some nations were able to play both sides diplomatically to get whatever benefits they could from the Cold War competition, but many more were entrapped by it. Between 1945 and 1983, some 20 million people were killed in more than a hundred wars and military conflicts, almost all of them in the third world. About a third to half of these conflicts were guerrilla wars, as peasants and urban workers fought armed struggles in small groups—often under the leadership of young intellectuals— against their exploitation by the rulers of their country. Frequently one superpower backed the government, the other the guerrillas. The superpowers sold or gave away their older weapons systems to their clients, and sometimes encouraged them to test the newer ones, but they themselves usually stood in the background and let others fight and kill on their behalf. Many of these proxy wars were fought in Africa, as we have seen in the case of Congo. In guerrilla wars in the Americas—in Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Chile—the United States and the USSR supported opposing parties, with Cuba often supplying training to communist guerrilla fighters. Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Chile were not “new nations” in the 1960s. They had become formally independent a century and a half earlier, but they remained poor, divided by social and ethnic differences, and economically dependent on wealthier countries, especially the United States, which claimed the western hemisphere as its sphere of influence. They identified with the developmental problems of the third world. [Note: Here Spodek uses “third world” as it was used in the Cold War, to refer to the group of nations outside of the US and its allies- first world- and the USSR and its allies- second war. It has a negative connotation today; it didn’t in the 1950s.] Nicaragua. Strains in the relationship between the US and Nicaragua had deep roots. In 1909, the US dispatched Marines to encourage a revolt to overthrow the Nicaraguan government, because it had begun to grant economic concessions to governments other than that of the United States. The troops remained, with very few breaks, until 1933. One Nicaraguan army officer, Augusto Cesar Sandino (1893–1934), rejected American hegemony and for seven years, 1927–33, fought a guerrilla war against the US Marines and the Nicaraguan National Guard. During peace negotiations, Sandino was deceived, arrested, and murdered by officers of the guard under Anastasio Somoza Garcia (1896–1956). Somoza subsequently seized control of the national government and, with the support of the United States, turned the presidency into a family dynasty for his two sons after him. In the 1960s, a revolutionary movement, largely composed of students calling themselves Sandinistas in memory of Sandino, initiated an armed guerrilla revolt. As the Somoza government became more rapacious, the resistance expanded and intensified, finally driving the government into exile. By the time the Sandinistas came to power in 1979, however, some 50,000 people had been killed in guerrilla warfare. American President Ronald Reagan with almost fanatic zeal, attempted to destabilize the Sandinista government. He authorized the creation of a paramilitary force against them, based across the border in Honduras, trained and supplied by the United States. He mined Nicaraguan harbors, violating the laws and treaties of the United States and earning the condemnation of the World Court, the primary judicial branch of the United Nations. When the American Congress refused to fund this clandestine war, the Reagan administration arranged to fund it secretly with the profits from equally secret arms sales to Iran, a country hostile to the United States at the time. An American Congressional investigation finally uncovered the double scandal. Eventually, several Central American governments negotiated a settlement of the civil war in Nicaragua, including an end to foreign military involvement and a call for honest elections. For his initiative in this effort to negotiate an end to the Nicaraguan conflict, Costa Rican President Oscar Arias was awarded the Nobel Prize for Peace. The nine years of warfare, 1981 to 1990, had cost approximately 60,000 lives and another 28,000 casualties. Augusto Cesar Sandino and Oscar Arias Chile. Chile began a program of agrarian reform and nationalized, with compensation, copper mines owned by American companies. The moderate government maintained good relations with the United States. In 1970, seeking more radical reform, the voters in Chile elected as president the socialist Salvador Allende (1908–73), although the United States government and major transnational corporations opposed him. Once in office, Allende confirmed their fears. He increased agrarian reform, purchased control of most banks, and continued the nationalization of the foreign-owned copper industry. Allende increased the salaries of government workers and expanded medical and housing programs, but he lacked the resources to pay for them, a circumstance that resulted in shortages and inflation. The United States government sharply reduced loans and aid to Allende’s socialist government. The CIA, with a mandate to overthrow Allende, covertly financed opposition parties and labor strikes. Finally, the Chilean middle class, and especially housewives, who found the resulting chaos and economic instability intolerable, persuaded the military to act. In September 1973, they attacked and bombed the presidential palace, killing Allende. General Augusto Pinochet (1915–2006), who headed the new government, jailed more than 100,000 Allende supporters, both men and women, and ultimately killed several thousand of them. Feared and hated for his violence toward the opposition, Pinochet was nevertheless effective in restoring the economy, with the aid of advisers from the United States. In a plebiscite [a type of election] in 1988, Pinochet was rejected by Chile’s voters, and the government passed to the opposition. After 15 years of military rule, Chile returned to democracy. Salvador Allende, Augusto Pinochet Revolution in Cuba Excerpted from Spodek Confrontations in Cuba, 1961–62. The most frightening moment of the Cold War took place in 1962. In Cuba, an island nation only 90 miles off the coast of Florida, a revolution led by Fidel Castro (b. 1926) had overthrown the American-backed dictator Fulgencio Batista in 1959. Although Castro denied that he was a communist and did, for a time, try to negotiate agreements with the United States, he soon established close military and economic ties with the Soviet bloc, threatening America’s hold over Latin America. In the Cold War environment of the time, the United States viewed Castro as a communist. When three multinational oil refineries refused to process oil brought to Cuba from the USSR, Castro expropriated the refineries. In response, the United States ended Cuban sugar imports to the US. In December 1961, Castro openly announced his allegiance to Marxism-Leninism. From that time, Cuba became dependent on the Soviet Union, reversing Batista’s earlier dependence on the United States. Castro then proceeded to expropriate or confiscate foreign assets, including $1 billion in North American property and investments in Cuba. He collectivized farms, thereby taking land away from peasants, and centralized control of the economy in the hands of the government. He took human development issues seriously, and devoted money and energies to health, education, and cultural activities. Education and all medical services were provided free to all citizens. The living standards of most Cubans improved sharply. Nevertheless, most of the elites—hundreds of thousands of people, critical of Castro—fled, with the acquiescence of the government, which was pleased to have them gone. These exiles were received with open arms in the United States, where they formed a large community, centered in Miami, which lobbied heavily for the United States to take action against Castro. Meanwhile Castro and his close associate Ernesto “Che” Guevara dispatched advisers throughout Latin America and Africa to promote guerrilla wars against imperialism and neocolonialism. Two confrontations between Cuba and the United States followed. The American government agreed to arm a group of about 1,500 Cuban exiles who planned to invade the island on the assumption that Cuba’s people would join them, welcoming the opportunity to overthrow Castro. When the exiles did invade, on April 17, 1961, at the Bay of Pigs, they were met not by a popular uprising but by Cuban armed forces, who immediately defeated them. In the next year, Cuba was the focus of the most direct confrontation of the Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union. The Soviets had positioned nuclear missiles in Cuba. Although they denied the existence of these missiles, American reconnaissance aircraft obtained photographic evidence. President Kennedy demanded that the missiles be withdrawn, threatening nuclear war. As the world watched, terrified, in fear of imminent Armageddon, Khrushchev announced that the USSR would remove the missiles in exchange for American promises not to invade Cuba again and to remove its own missiles from Turkey. Argentina in the Post-War Era Source: Traditions and Encounters by Bentley, et. al. Mexico served as one model for political development in Latin America, and Argentina seemed to be another candidate for leadership in South America. It had a reasonably expansive economy based on cattle raising and agriculture, a booming urban life, the beginnings of an industrial base, and a growing middle class in a population composed mostly of migrants from Europe. Given its geographic position far to the south, Argentina remained relatively independent of US control and became a leader in the Latin American struggle against US and European economic and political intervention in the region. A gradual shift to free elections and a sharing of political power beyond that exercised by the land-owning elite also emerged. Given the military’s central role in its politics, however, Argentina became a model of a less positive form of political organization: the often brutal and deadly sway of military rulers. Juan Perón During WWI, nationalistic military leader gained power in Argentina and established a government controlled by the army. In 1946, Juan Perón (d. 1974), a former colonel in the army, was elected president. Although he was a nationalistic militarist, his regime gained immense popularity among large segments of the Argentine population, partly because he appealed to the more downtrodden Argentines. He promoted a nationalistic populism, calling for industrialization, support of the working class, and protection of the economy from foreign control. Juan and Evita Perón Evita However opportunistic Perón may have been, his popularity with the masses was real. His wife, Eva Perón(d. 1952), helped to foster that popularity, as Argentines warmly embraced their “Evita” (“Little Eva”). She rose from the ranks of the desperately poor. An illegitimate child who migrated to Buenos Aires at the age of 15, she found work as a radio soap opera-actress. She met Peron in 1944, and they were married shortly thereafter. Reigning in the Casa Rosada (The Pink House), as Argentina’s First Lady from 1946-1952, Eva Perón transformed herself into a stunningly beautiful political leader, radiant with dyed gold blonde hair and clothed in classic designer fashions. While pushing for her husband’s political reforms, she also tirelessly ministered to the needs of the poor, often the same descamisados, or “shirtless ones,” who formed the core of her husband’s supporters. Endless lines of people came to see her in her offices at the labor ministry– asking for dentures, wedding clothes, medical care, and the like. Eva Peron accommodated the demands and more: she bathed lice-ridden children in her own home, kissed lepers, and created the Eva Perón Foundation to institutionalize and extend such charitable endeavors. When she died of uterine cancer at the age of 33, the nation mourned the tragic passing of a woman who came to be elevated to the status of “Santa Evita.” Some saw Eva Perón not as a saint but as a grasping social climber and a fascist sympathizer and saw her husband as a political opportunist, but after Juan Perón’s ouster from office in 1955, support for the Perónist party remained strong. However, with the exception of a brief return to power by Perón in the mid-1970s, brutal military dictators held sway for the next three decades. Military rule took a sinister turn in the late 1970s and early 1980s when dictators approved the creation of death squads that fought a “dirty war” against suspected subversives. Between 6,000 and 23,000 people disappeared between 1976 and 1983. Calls for a return to democratic politics increased in the aftermath of the dirty war, demands that were intensified by economic disasters and the growth of the poor classes. [Beginning in 1977, mothers and grandmothers of those kidnapped and killed by the military regime (the “desaparecidos” began gathering in the Plaza Mayor to protest the regime brutality and to demand that the regime reveal the whereabouts of their loved ones. The regime did murder some of the movements leaders and did fire on the crowds, but the group persisted. Since then, genetic testing has allowed families to find missing grandchildren and relatives.-- adapted from History.com by Ms. Stalec.] “Mothers of the Disappeared” Liberation for Nations and Women Source: Traditions and Encounters by Bentley, et. al. Revolutionary ideologies and political activism provided opportunities for Latin American women to agitate for both national and women’s liberation. Nicaraguan women, for example, established the Association of Women Concerned about National Crisis in 1977 and fought as part of the Sandinista Front for National Liberation (FSLN). The FSLN was named in honor of the martyred Augusto Cesar Sandino (d. 1934), murdered for his opposition to US intrusion in Nicaragua by the forces of Nicaraguan leader and US ally Anastacio Somoza Garcia (d. 1956). Somoza’s sons followed their father’s brutal leadership practices, and Nicaraguan women dedicated themselves to ridding their nation of Somoza rule. In 1979, they renamed the organization the Luisa Amanda Espinoza Association of Nicaraguan women (AMNLAE) to acknowledge the first woman who died in the battle against the Somoza regime.* The group’s slogan– “no revolution without women’s emancipation: no emancipation without revolution”-- suggested teh dual goals of Nicaraguan women. By the mid 1980s, AMNLAE had over 80,000 members despite facing problems typical to women’s movements trying to navigate between national and personal needs, AMNLAE has been credited with forwarding women’s participation in the public and political spheres, an impressive accomplishment in a region where women’s suffrage had often been delayed. Although women in Ecuador attained voting rights in 1929, women in Nicaragua could not vote until 1955; Paraguay’s women waited for suffrage rights until 1961, when that nation became the last in Latin America to incorporate women into the political process. *Do note that the AMNLAE does not replace the Sandinistas; that group continued in the 1980s. AP World Homework Due: 5/11/26 Unit 6: Global Conflicts Decolonization in Africa Directions: Readings from Spodek: “Colonial Empires:” goal: to understand the overall historical trend of decolonization. “African Struggles:” goal: to understand a few examples of how African states became independent Additional Readings “Decolonization in Ghana, Kenya, and South Africa:” goal: understand how these states became independent Answer the questions in your notebooks. Questions: Write the leaders, a brief description (2-3 bullets) of how a country became independent, and the struggles they faced afterward (3-4 bullets) in the chart below. NOTE: You must know these leaders: Patrice Lumumba, Jomo Kenyatta, Kwame Nkrumah, and Nelson Mandela. Country Leaders How became independent Challenges during and after Independence Congo Patrice Lumumba Joesph Kasavbu Joesph Mobutu Belgium granted independence on June 30, 1960 after nationalist pressure and riots Lumumba provides militant nationalist leadership demanding independence Belgium moved too quickly and failed to prepare Congo for self-rule Ethnic divisions and civil conflicts between regions like Katanga and central gov Cold War involvement by USSR, US, Belgium, and UN Katanga attempted to secede because of its mineral wealth Mobutu established a corrupt dictatorship and transferred wealth to his own accounts (embezzling) Algeria Charles de Gaulle Algeria fought long violent war against French rule Arab Islamic nationalism grew in 1940s and 1950s De Gaulle negotiated for independence in 1962 after years of civil Over 300k Algerians and 20k French died in this war Very few educated Algerians were there to govern the country High birth rates and unemployment made economic pressure Many rural migrants moved to cities and others went to France for work Ghana Kwame Nkrumah Gained independence from Britain in 1957 Nkurmah led nonviolent resistance movement similar to Gandhi Britain lacked strength to stop them after WWII Expensive development programs weakened economy Political instability led to military coups Ghanna struggles between civilian and military rule Economic instability, continued after independence Kenya Jomo Kenyatta Mau Mau Rebellion fought against British settlers and colonial rule Britain imprisoned Kenyatta even though their resistance was nonviolent Gained independence in 1963 and Kenyatta became president Ethnic and language division made unioty difficult Corruption weakened the country One party rule caused opposition and unrest Ethnic violence killed hundreds and displaced thousands South Africa Nelson Mandela Stephen Biko FW De Klerk Apartheid faced resistance from ANC and BCM Mandela and ANC opposed Apartheid and were imprisoned Internatrional boycotts and economic pressure helped end apartheid in 1992, Mandela became president in 1994 Apartheid forced racial segregation and denied rights to Black SOuth Africa Gov used violence imprisonments and killing of opponents Economic sanctions and condemnations hurt SA Racial tensions remained after apartheid ended Why did the world wars and world depressions that occurred between 1914 and 1945 cause colonial empires to collapse? Provide two reasons. Wars and depression weakened colonial powers by depleting manpower, money and resources, which made it difficult to maintain their colonies Colonized people lost faith in the colonizers after the devastating wars which led to stronger independence movements What were some of the challenges faced by former African colonies as they gained their independence? Identify three examples. COlonial borders ignored tribal and ethnic differences which caused ethnic conflict and civ ilwars Many countries lacked education systems, infrastructure,a and leaders trained for stable gov Cold War competition between US and USSR interfered in African poliitcs and economies What was Apartheid, and why did the United States support the white Apartheid government of South Africa? Provide one reason. Apartheid was racial segregation between whites (who controlled gov) and blacks (who were denied political rights and forced to live separately). The US suppoirted their gov bc SA was strongly anti Communist during Civil war. Colonial Empires Overthrow & New Nations Born: Decolonization Excerpts from Spodek The collapse of colonialism and the emergence of more than 80 new nations from colonial control to independence was in large part a legacy of the world wars and the global depression. These cataclysms, continuing for 30 years from 1914 to 1945, depleted the colonizers of manpower, financial resources, and moral authority. They no longer had the power to hold on to their colonies, especially as many of the colo- nies began to assert their right to independence. (Korea actually represented an early example of a country emerging from colonial control, finding itself caught between the conflicting claims of the US and the USSR, and charting a course of its own.) The colonized peoples, and many of the colonizers themselves, no longer believed in the “white man’s burden” of civilizing the non-Western world. The almost unimaginable devastation of the wars exploded the myth of the superiority of the civilization of the colonizers. Leaders of anticolonial movements had already been disillusioned once, when promises of self-government were broken at the end of World War I. By the time of World War II they no longer believed the word of their colonial masters. Famously, when the British offered to give India self-government at the end of World War II in exchange for India’s participation in the war effort, Mohandas Gandhi declined, mocking the offer as “a postdated check on a failing bank.” Following World War II, the demands for independence intensified throughout the colonial world. In the words of Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, It is only when a people are politically free that other races can give them the respect that is due them. It is impossible to talk of equality of races in any other terms. No people without a government of their own can expect to be treated on the same level as peoples of independent sovereign states. It is far better to be free to govern or misgovern yourself than to be governed by anybody else. (Nkrumah, p. 9) The anticolonial nationalists gained important new allies as the United States and the Soviet Union both added their voices. The Soviet Union had from its inception declared its opposition to overseas colonialism, although its holdings in central and Eastern Europe and central Asia looked like its own form of colonialism close to home. The United States, too, especially under presidents Roosevelt and Truman, spoke out for an end to colonialism. These anticolonial stands had some effect. Britain’s Winston Churchill, for example, moderated his procolonial position, especially with regard to India, in deference to his wartime colleagues. In the long run, Churchill’s increased moderation was not enough. The British voted his party out of office at the end of the war. The voters felt that Churchill was the right man for the war, but not for the peace. They wanted new directions at home and abroad. They began to see British imperial holdings as economically and militarily costly in the face of renewed colonial resistance, and perhaps as morally inappropriate as well. They called for the termination of the imperial enterprise. The combination of increasingly resistant colonized nations and colonizing powers no longer able, or willing, to repress them led to the conferring of independence. African Struggles for Independence Excerpts from Spodek Most African countries obtained independence between the end of World War II and the 1970s, in some cases after long struggles, in others quite abruptly. Although nominally independent since 1922, Egypt gained full sovereignty over the Suez Canal only in 1956. The following year, Ghana became the first black African country to win its independence, from Britain. Most of the French colonies gained their independence in 1960. Dozens more followed in the next decade. The new nations faced many challenges. European colonizers had drawn the boundaries of their African colonies for their own convenience, without regard for tribal and ethnic differences. After independence, these differences came to the fore, often resulting in civil wars. In claiming independence, national leaders proclaimed such diverse ideologies as bourgeois democ- racy, workers’ socialism, Islamic resurgence, and indigenous nationalism, in various combinations. These ideologies were often in conflict with one another. Most of all, the countries had not been prepared for independence by their colonial rulers, and they struggled to achieve stability. Their educational facil- ities, economic enterprises, and physical infrastructure were minimal. They were caught up in the Cold War struggles of the US and USSR. They were too weak to bargain effectively with the international businesses that came to exploit their natural resources. Their leaders often sold out to foreign political and economic interest groups. Egypt. In 1952, a group of Egyptian army officers, among them Gamal Abdel Nasser (1918–70), overthrew the government, forced King Farouk to abdicate, and asserted Egypt’s independence from British control. In 1956, the British withdrew their troops from the Suez Canal and Egypt nationalized the waterway. Israel, which had been suffering guerrilla attacks across its border from Egypt, reached an agreement with Britain and France jointly to retake the canal, put an end to cross-border attacks, and change the governing policies of Egypt. At the end of October, Israeli forces attacked Egypt, and a few days later Britain and France bombed Egypt and airdropped troops to join the fighting. US President Eisenhower, blind-sided and infuriated by this neo- colonial aggression on the part of his own allies, put pressure on them to withdraw from Egypt and the canal. As a result, Nasser’s reputation reached heroic heights throughout the Arab world as a man who had confronted the Western powers, divided them, and got rid of them. In 1958, failing to reach an agreement with the United States, Nasser concluded one with the Soviet Union accepting its assistance in building the Aswan High Dam on the Nile River, one of the greatest engineering and hydroelectric projects of its time. Nasser died in 1970, and his successor, Anwar Sadat (1918–81), expelled all Soviet advisers, once again demonstrating that politics were mercurial in former colonies, and could cause problems for their former colonizers. Sadat was assassinated, but his successor, Hosni Mubarak (b. 1928), continued his policy of keeping the Soviet Union at a distance and maintaining collegial diplomatic relations with the United States. Congo. The “Congo crisis” of 1960 demonstrated again the cross-cutting interests of the Cold War superpowers, international business groups, and the competitive regional and ethnic groups within a newly created nation. The Congo is rich in dia- monds, copper, coffee, and crude oil. It has 70 percent of the world’s known reserves of cobalt. In earlier days it was also known for its natural rubber, before the general use of the synthetic alternative. To reap the profits of these products, Leopold II, King of the Belgians, had first taken the Congo as his personal colony in 1885. Because of the extraordinary cruelty of his rule, the Belgian government itself took control in 1908, but violence and autocracy remained characteristic of Belgian rule. (See illustration of Congolese plantation workers in “Nationalism, Imperialism, and Resistance.”) Political devolution to limited self-rule began only in 1957. A small group of edu- cated Congolese, who saw the preparations for independence in other African colonies, began to assert their own demands. Joseph Kasavubu (c. 1910–69) was an early advocate of independence, but his focus was primarily on his own ethnic group, the Bakongo people. Patrice Lumumba (1925–61) provided a more national and more militant leadership. Antigovernment rioting began in January 1959. In January 1960, Belgium convened a Round Table Conference in Brussels and, with breakneck, unrealistic speed, declared that the Congo would be independent on June 30, 1960. Belgium had not prepared the country to function as an independent state. The nation had some 4,000 senior administrative posts to fill but only 30 university graduates. At the independence celebrations, Lumumba, the newly elected prime minister, delivered a bitter speech of deep-seated, festering rage toward the Belgians: We are no longer your monkeys ... We have known the back-breaking works exacted from us in exchange for sal- aries which permit us neither to eat enough to satisfy our hunger, nor to dress and lodge ourselves decently, nor to raise our children as the beloved creatures they are. We have known the mockery, the insults, the blows submitted to morning, noon, and night because we were nègres [blacks]. We have known that our lands were de- spoiled in the name of supposedly legal text which in reality recognized only the right of the stronger ... And, finally, who will forget the hangings or the firing squads where so many of our brothers perished, or the cells into which were brutally thrown those who escaped the sol- diers’ bullets—the soldiers whom the colonialists made the instruments of their domination? (cited in Andrea and Overfield, pp. 507–08) Within days of independence, the army mutinied; Kasavubu, the new president, dismissed Lumumba; Lumumba, in turn, dismissed Kasavubu; Moise Tshombe (1919–69), a pro-Western political leader of Katanga, the Congo’s richest region, declared that region independent under his leader- ship; the Belgians, eager to get their hands on the mineral wealth of Katanga, supported his move; and both Kasavubu and Lumumba appealed to the UN for assistance Lumumba wanted the UN peace-keeping force to bring Katanga, with its rich mineral wealth, back into the Congo, but Kasavubu did not. Their dispute paralyzed the UN forces. Lumumba called on the USSR for assistance, placing the Congo in the middle of the Cold War struggles. Lumumba was captured by Kasavubu, escaped, and was recap- tured, turned over to the Katanga secessionists, and murdered, apparently with the complicity of the Belgian government and the assistance of the American Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). UN forces defeated Katanga and its mercenary armed forces only in 1963. By that time, however, other provinces of Congo also revolted against the central government and were subdued with the help of European merce- nary troops. Most surprisingly, in the movement to restore the authority of the central government, Tshombe became prime minister. Continuing disputes between Tshombe and President Kasavubu opened the way for a military coup led by Joseph Mobutu (1930–97; later Mobutu Sese Seko). With help from Morocco, France, and the United States, Mobutu held out against invasions and continuing attempts at secession. He ruled with dictatorial powers, changed the name of the country and its principal river from Congo to Zaire, and transferred much of the wealth earned by Congo’s exports to his own overseas accounts—knowl- edgeable observers guessed their total value at $4–5 billion—until he was forced from office and into exile in 1997. Congo is an especially stark example of the troubles of a weak new nation, rich in natural resources but underdeveloped economically and technologically, deeply divided among its various ethnic groups, caught up in the politics of the Cold War and the lure of the international marketplace, and ultimately captured by a kleptomaniac, tyrannical dictator for his own purposes. Algeria. Algeria won independence in 1962 after a long and bitter struggle that threat- ened to plunge France itself into civil war. France had been the colonizing power in Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia. Independence for Morocco and Tunisia came relatively easily and peacefully in 1956 through negotiations with France. Algeria won its independence, however, only through violence and civil war. Algeria had the largest European settler community in North Africa. The French numbered one million, about 12 percent of the total population, but they held one-third of all the cultivable land. These settlers had become prosperous and comfortable. For them, Algeria was home. By the early 1950s, 80 percent of them had been born in Algeria. Constitutionally, Algeria was not a colony but an integral part of France, with official representation in the French National Assembly. In addition, through the 1930s, the Algerian elite were French-educated and saw themselves as more French than Algerian. By the 1940s, however, reformists were moving to create a more powerful Arab–Islamic nationalism, fostering social unity, a distinct national consciousness, and solidarity with other Arabs against European rule. By the mid-1950s, an Algerian revolution against French rule was met by French repression. The two sides became increasingly entrenched. The violence ratcheted upward and spread not only throughout Algeria, but also to France. The governmental system of France, the Fourth Republic, was weak, and it fell as civil war seemed to threaten. In this time of crisis, the French government asked the hero and leader of the French resistance in World War II, Charles de Gaulle (1890–1970), to take over as president of France under a new constitution. Despite an apparent mandate to continue the war, de Gaulle surprised his supporters by choosing to negotiate a settlement that finally granted Algeria independence in 1962, but only after 300,000 Algerians and 20,000 French had been killed. Virtually all the one million European residents, many of whom had lived in the country for generations, left Algeria. Of the Algerians, only 7,000 were in secondary school; in 1954, only 70 living, native Algerians had had a university education. The leaders of the new nation, hardened by their years of guerrilla warfare and ideologically committed to centralized control, took over the tasks of development. They instituted a four-year plan in 1969, and nationalized the petroleum and natural gas resources that had been dis- covered in 1956. They devoted much of the new oil revenue to industrialization. They increased education’s share of the national budget from 2.2 to 10 percent of the gross national product. The birth rate, however, remained very high. Rural migrants streamed toward the cities, and hundreds of thousands of Algerians emigrated to France in search of jobs. Decolonization in Africa The Independence of Ghana At the end of World War II, both Britain and France were in a weakened state. Both governments were bankrupt and neither had the military capacity to administer its vast global empire. As a result, one nation after another on the African continent sought and achieved its independence between 1945 and 1960. We call this period decolonization. One of the first was the western African nation of Ghana. For almost a century, Ghana had been a British colony known as the Gold Coast. Its independence movement began in the 1940’s when a Socialist intellectual named Dr. Kwame Nkrumah moved back there after a long stay in the United States. Nkrumah had been educated in the U.S. and had worked as a preacher in Black churches in Philadelphia and New York City. He was a strong adherent to the teachings of Leon Trotsky and Mohandas Gandhi. Upon his return to the Gold Coast, Nkrumah began a campaign of non-violence patterned after Gandhi in India. As with Gandhi, the British imprisoned Nkrumah for a time until authorities in London realized that they had neither the military strength nor the resources to stop his movement. What was more important was that both the Soviet Union and the United States were strongly anti-imperialist. Britain now relied on support from the United States for its defense, and the U.S. supported Nkrumah. In 1957, the Gold Coast achieved its independence. Nkrumah named the new nation Ghana, after an ancient African empire that had ruled that region 1,000 years earlier. Nkrumah became Ghana’s first prime minister and later its president-for-life. Nkrumah pushed through new roads, new schools, and expanded health facilities. These costly projects soon crippled the country. His programs for industrialization, health and welfare, and expanded educational facilities showed good intentions. However, the expense of the programs undermined the economy and strengthened his opposition. On the global stage, Nkrumah championed the concept of non-alignment, seeking to keep Ghana independent from both Western and Soviet influence during the Cold War. In addition, Nkrumah was often criticized for spending too much time on Pan-African efforts and neglecting economic problems in his own country. He dreamed of a “United States of Africa.” In 1966, while Nkrumah was in China, the army and police in Ghana seized power. Since then, the country has shifted back and forth between civilian and military rule and has struggled for economic stability. In 2000, Ghana held its first open elections. The Independence of Kenya Jomo Kenyatta A similar event occurred in the East African nation of Kenya, which was also a British colony. Since the 19th century, White landowners had taken up residence on the best farmlands by driving the native residents off of them. In the late 1950’s a powerful and violent Communist insurrection known as the Mau Mau Rebellion occurred against these farmers. Mau Mau guerrillas attacked and burned crops and plantation buildings across the colony. In response, Britain launched air strikes against suspected guerrilla hideouts and imprisoned Jomo Kenyatta, a nationalist independence leader who actually preached nonviolence. Repeating similar chapters from the stories of both India and Ghana, the British eventually acquiesced in Kenyan independence, freed Kenyatta, and watched as he was elected Kenya’s first president in 1963. Kenyatta became president of the new nation. He worked hard to unite the country’s various ethnic and language groups. Kenyatta died in 1978. His successor, Daniel arap Moi, was less successful in governing the country. Moi faced increasing opposition to his one-party rule. Adding to the nation’s woes were corruption in Moi’s government and ethnic conflicts that killed hundreds and left thousands homeless. Moi stepped down in 2002, and a new party gained power through free elections. The Creation of Apartheid in South Africa The Dutch originally colonized South Africa in the 1600’s, and its name at that time was the “Cape Colony.” During that period, the Dutch empire included the Spice Islands of South East Asia and the Dutch used the Cape Colony as a place for its ships to resupply on the long voyage to and from the Pacific. The Dutch who colonized the Cape were extreme racists. Most were followers of a brand of Protestantism that taught that Black skin was a sign that the person was a sinner. Just as in Kenya (but to a greater extent) White Dutch farmers in the Cape Colony drove native Black Africans off of the best farmland and kept it for themselves. They also monopolized the lucrative diamond business. After Napoleon invaded the Netherlands in the early 19th century, the Cape Colony came under the control of Great Britain. British colonial authorities strongly disapproved of the racial policies of the White Dutch settlers in the colony. Attempts by the British to change them resulted in what is known as the Boer War (1899 – 1902). In this war, White Dutch settlers (Boers) were defeated by Britain after bloody and costly fighting. Though by 1910 South Africa had achieved its independence, tensions between Whites and Blacks continued. In 1948 the White government established a new policy known as apartheid. Under apartheid, White South Africans (who now called themselves Afrikaners) controlled all governmental affairs. Only Whites were allowed to vote or hold office. Black South Africans were forced to live in impoverished ghettos and could not travel out of them without a written pass from the government. Public education was segregated and of poor quality for blacks. The Afrikaner government used brutal violence to enforce apartheid, often beating, killing or imprisoning without trial Blacks who opposed it. In 1961, an attorney named Nelson Mandela became the leader of the African National Congress (ANC), a Black African political party that opposed apartheid with armed force. Mandela and other ANC leaders were arrested, tried, and imprisoned on Robben Island, a maximum-security penitentiary off the coast. Imprisonment only enhanced Mandela’s stature among Black South Africans. For decades, while he languished in jail, many viewed him as the embodiment of their struggle for equality in a nation where they were the overwhelming majority. Nelson Mandela (1964) Stephen Biko (1976) Nelson Mandela (1994) During the 1970’s, with Mandela and much of the ANC leadership imprisoned, a new leader rose to prominence – Stephen Biko. Biko was a college student who led something known as the Black Consciousness Movement across South Africa. He taught Black South Africans to celebrate their native cultures and to resist apartheid through nonviolent means. On August 21, 1977 Biko was arrested at a police roadblock for violating the Terrorism Act of 1967. He was taken to a police station where he was chained naked to a window grill and beaten to death. It is unclear whether the police knew of his identity at the time of his death. The story of Stephen Biko has since been immortalized in the song Biko by Peter Gabriel and in the film Cry Freedom, which stars Denzel Washington. Throughout all of this, the United States supported the apartheid government of South Africa. Occasionally American politicians would condemn the apartheid policy itself, but because the South African government was also staunchly anti communist, the U.S. supported it with military aid. The rest of the world felt differently, however. By the 1980’s much of the world was participating in a boycott of trade with South Africa. In 1992, with his country suffering economically, and condemned by much of the world, South African President F.W. De Klerk, officially ended apartheid. Nelson Mandela was released from prison and elected president in 1994. AP World Name: Homework Due: 5/7/26 Unit 6: Global Conflicts Chinese Revolutions Directions: Complete ONE of the readings below: Reading 1- “Chinese Communist Revolution” (Provides an overview of events) Reading 2- “China’s Revolutions” (Pages 772-782 in Spodek) Answer the questions. You may write bullet points or use charts. Questions: Write a definition for the term or a description of the person listed here: Mao Zedong, Guomindang, Chiang Kai-Shek, Tiananmen Square (look at end of reading 1), Deng Xiaoping (look at end of reading 1). Mao Zedong: Leader of CCP, led Communists in Chinese CIvil War, became Communist dictator of China after 1949, brought the plan called Great Leap Forward Guomindang: Led first by Sut Yatsen and later by Chiang Kaishek, fought against Communists for control of CHina Chiang Kai-shek: Nationalist Chinese leader who fought both Japanese and Mao Communists. After losing the civil war, he fled to Taiwan with his supporters. Tiananmen Square: Place of 1989 student riot demanding democracy. Chinese troops deployed troops to restore public order, but it resulted in deaths, injuries, and arrests of some students engaged in the riot. Deng Xiaoping: Moderate Communist leader who replaced Mao after Mao’s plan failed. He allowed some private ownership and introduced the Four Modernizations: science, defense, agriculture, and industry. Compare the leadership and goals of Chiang Kai-shek to Mao Zedong. In your response include at least 2 similarities and 2 differences. Similarities: Both wished for China to be strong, united, and independent Both utilized their military power to gain political control Both fought in the Chinese Civil War Both accepted Sun Yatsen’s “Three People Principles” but they interpreted them differently Differences: Chiang placed emphasis on businessmen, internationa alliances, and individual initative, while Mao focused on peasants, community organizations,, and rurual life Chiangg led the Guomindag, while Mao led the CCP Chiang received support from Western business leaders and the US, while Mao gained support from peasants and later the USSR Mao relied on guerilla warfare and peasant support, while Chiang relied upon a military government Why was the Great Leap Forward unsuccessful? Compare the Great Leap Forward to another economic program in the period 1850-1950. This plan failed because: Collective farms did not make enough food Millions of people were forcibly displaced from their land Industries made low quality metal which could not be used or sold Plan caused economic issues, starvation, and millions died from famine Comparison: Similar to Stalin as both forced peasants on collective farms What were the short-term and long-term effects of the Cultural Revolution? Short term effects: Red Guards attacked teachers, intellectuals, and party officials Universities were ransacked and foreign books were burned Many people were imprisoned, humiliated, or sent to labor camps and rural communes Long term effects Chinese economy and culture stagnated Intellectual and academic life were severely damaged Many talented professionals could not work their fields What rules and policies regarding women changed during Mao’s rule of China? (last two paragraphs in reading 2) Arranged marriages were forbidden Marriage contracts which involved buying/selling wives were prohibited Women were encouraged to choose their own marriage partners Concubinage, footbinding (the practice of making women wear extremely small shoes which basically made their feet smaller and more “attractive”), prostitution, and trafficking of women were banned More women ended up entering the workforce Reading 1: The Chinese Communist Revolution Chinese Revolution Part I (1908-1940) After Empress Cixi died, the emperor Puyi ruled for a short time from 1908-1912. Puyi was forced to abdicate during a revolt by nationalists (remember all the revolts in the 19th century against the Europeans and Manchu rulers???). China was then declared a republic by a revolutionary named Sun Yatsen. The republic was not successful and several regions descended into warfare. Foreign nations still interfered with Chinese policies; revolutionaries were still angry with this. Many Chinese had hoped the Allies at the Paris Peace Conference of 1918 would end the unequal treaty system, but were disappointed when that did not happen. This drove many Chinese to turn away from Western European nations as intellectual examples and look for a new model-- they found one in Marxism. Eventually a leader, named Mao Zedong, emerged amongst the fledgling Marxists in China. Sun Yatsen did not share Mao’s goals, but Communism still gained popularity in China. After Sun Yatsen died, Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi) assumed leadership of the Guomindang. Chiang Kai-shek did not approve of Communists. During the 1930s, the new government struggled with three problems: 1) threat of Communists, 2) lack of control and authority throughout China, and 3) Japan aggression. Chiang Kai-shek chose to focus on the Communists. After a series of battles, the Communists were forced to retreat to the northwestern provinces of China during the Long March. The Long March was an escape over 6,000 miles of rough terrain struggling with disease, hunger, and the Guomindang pursuit. Eventually the Long March actually inspired many peasants to join the Communists...and Mao learned the importance of peasant support. China in WWII and Chinese Civil War (1945-9) For Chinese dictator Chiang Kai-Shek, World War II was actually two wars rolled into one. At the same time that his large but ill-equipped Guomindang (National People’s Party) Army was battling to defend China from Japanese invasion, it was simultaneously fighting to crush an armed rebellion of Communists led by Mao Zedong. To assist with the struggle against Japan, the United States sent Chiang millions of dollars of weapons and equipment, flown in from British airbases in India. Throughout the war, Chiang rarely used these American supplies to fight the Japanese, however. Believing that the American navy would ultimately defeat the Japanese in the Pacific, he stockpiled American weapons to use later against Mao’s Communists. This angered the United States. Chiang Kai-shek The Long March 1934 As soon as Japan surrendered in 1945, Chiang turned his full attention to waging war against Mao. From 1945 -1949 a Chinese Civil War raged. The United States, now led by President Truman, once again poured supplies in to assist Chiang’s government. It was not enough, however. The Communists were receiving vastly more support from the Soviet Union than Chiang was receiving from the US, and hundreds of millions of Chinese peasants preferred Mao Zedong to Chiang (see? The power of peasant support!) In 1949, after a string of stunning military defeats, Chiang and millions of his supporters were forced to flee China and establish themselves on the island of Formosa off the Chinese coast. There they established a new country called Taiwan. Great Leap Forward (1958-1962) After a decade of revolt against Chiang, Mao Zedong was now the Communist dictator of China and he was anxious to set his socialist theories into practice. China was not a developed nation in 1949. The great majority of its people were impoverished peasants living poorly equipped homes in rural areas. The nation had almost no industry and foreign countries still owned or occupied whole regions. Cities were in ruins after decades of war and infectious disease was rampant. To remedy this, in 1958 Mao announced an economic program called The Great Leap Forward. Rather than break up large estates and redistribute land to peasants as he had promised during the war, Mao borrowed an idea from Josef Stalin. He ordered his army to forcibly move millions of peasants off the lands they had worked for generations and onto large collective farms where they would live in dormitories and produce crops communally. He experienced staunch resistance. The lands on which Chinese peasants had lived for centuries contained the graves of their ancestors, and an important part of Confucian practice is worshipping one’s ancestors. Mao outlawed the practice of Confucianism and replaced it with his own Socialist doctrines. Great Leap Forward- Mao’s propaganda poster (Mao is the man with the plans.) Great Leap Forward-- “backyard industries” Commune farming Mao also instructed families to create “backyard industries.” He told the people that he wanted China to accomplish 200 years of industrialization in five years by melting down unneeded metal items such as bicycles, silverware and tools. He thought that the metal derived from this effort could be used to produce new steel that would be used in industry. Unfortunately for the Chinese people, Great Leap Forward turned out to be completely ineffective. Rather than achieve 200 years of industrialization in five years, China plummeted into worse poverty. The agricultural communes did not produce nearly enough food, leading to the starvation of 30 million people in just one year. Backyard industries produced low-quality metal that could not be used or sold. As a result of these failures, other Communist Party leaders removed Mao as the leader of China. While he remained in the ceremonial position as Chairman of the Communist Party, a more moderate leader named Deng Xiaoping became premier. Deng instituted a less drastic form of Communism that allowed for a small degree of private ownership. As a result, China began to recover economically. In the midst of all of this, Mao Zedong was angry at having been removed as the leader of China. In the years since the failure of his Great Leap Forward, the former dictator had changed dramatically. By the mid 1960’s he was living in an opulent palace and married to China’s most famous film actress. While serving technically as Chairman of the Communist Party, he only rarely appeared in public and, when he did, made pronouncements that seemed increasingly estranged from reality. Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) Suddenly, in 1966 Mao announced the start of what he called the Cultural Revolution. With renewed fervor, he began touring the country giving speeches that inspired millions of young Chinese to take to the streets and rebel against all forms of authority, especially the new moderate policies of Deng Xiaoping. He published millions of copies of a little red book that he called Mao’s Little Red Book that contained quotations about how to be a true Socialist. In response, zealous young cadres ransacked universities and burned foreign books. They beat and robbed party leaders and business managers, forcing them to wear “dunce caps” or marching them naked through the streets until they publicly confessed their disloyalty to Mao and the Socialist ideals. Others were sent to work in the countryside in communes until they learned how to become “real” Socialists. The Cultural Revolution lasted until 1976 when Mao died. It was an unmitigated disaster. During this ten-year period almost no Chinese citizen received an education and China stagnated even further. Most talented Chinese were imprisoned or were unable to practice the profession they were best at. By 1981 China had begun to recover from the Cultural Revolution. Deng Xiaoping, who had been sent away to a work camp during the Cultural Revolution, returned as China’s leader. Deng was a practical reformer. He allowed some private industry and gave peasants small individual plots of land to own. He also emphasized what he called the Four Modernizations: science, defense, agriculture, and industry. Under Deng and the moderate reformers that followed him, China emerged as a major economic power that rivaled (and in some cases surpassed) the United States. Today, the Chinese government is still Communist, but the economy does practice some limited capitalism and encourages foreign investment and trade (i.e. most of your Apple products are made in Chinese factories). Most famous photo of Tiananmen Square Protests The Chinese government did not, however, become a democracy. In 1989, thousands of student demonstrators took to the streets in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square to demand democracy. They chanted slogans from European philosophers in English and even made a statue called the Goddess of Democracy and Freedom. With Deng looking on, Chinese troops beat and shot the demonstrators and ran them over with tanks. Thousands were killed, wounded, imprisoned and tortured. China’s Revolutions From The World’s History by Spodek (pages 772-782) China fell into political and military chaos after the revolution of 1911 that ended its 2,000-year-old empire. Two groups emerged from these divisions: the Guomindang (GMD, National People’s Party), led first by Sun Yat-sen (Sun Yixian, 1866–1925) and then by Chiang Kai-shek (Jiang Jieshi, 1887–1975); and the communists, commanded by Mao Zedong (1893–1976). Chiang Kai-shek Chiang began as a military commander and later sought to build a government based on his GMD party. Mao began as a Communist Party organizer and later built an army, mostly of guerrilla warriors. Both leaders revered Sun Yat-sen and accepted his “Three People’s Principles” as guidelines for their political and economic programs, but they interpreted Sun’s teachings quite differently. Where Chiang emphasized the role of businessmen, international alliances, and individual initiative, Mao stressed the peasant farmer, community organization, and indigenous institutions. The two men and their parties fought for control in a bitter civil war that festered for a quarter century after Sun’s death in 1925. Both learned that “in a country ruled and plundered by marauding warlord armies, it was naked military power that was crucial in determining the direction of political events” (Meisner, p. 21). In Mao’s blunt words: “Political power grows out of the barrel of a gun.” Chiang had studied in a Japanese military academy, fought in the revolution to over- throw the Manchu government in 1911, and rose to command China’s own new Whampoa military academy near Guangzhou, established with Soviet financing. After Sun’s death, he succeeded to the leadership of the GMD. Chiang courted diverse, apparently contradictory constituencies. Foreign powers in the treaty ports monitored China’s shifting fortunes with con- siderable self-interest. By 1931 foreigners had invested $3.25 billion in China. Foreign loans financed China’s railways and heavy industry, and foreigners held 75 percent of all investments in shipping, almost 50 percent of the cotton spindles, and 80 to 90 percent of the coal mines. In the early 1920s, the politicization and unionization of industrial workers encouraged many strikes, to which the employers—many of them foreigners—responded violently. These employers wanted a compliant government that would help them to break the strikes and keep the workers in line. They believed Chiang to be their man and they provided large loans to keep his government afloat. Christian missionaries and educational institutions also supported the GMD, attracted partly by Chiang’s own Christian affiliation. The YMCA movement claimed 54,000 members in 1922. In the early 1920s some 12,000 Christian missionaries served in China. Christian and foreign colleges enrolled 4,000 of the 35,000 students in Chinese colleges in 1922. Nine percent of their students were women. China’s universities incorporated the study of Western culture and literature, and Western academic luminaries (as well as the poet and Nobel laureate Rabindranath Tagore of India) toured and lectured widely. With the support of Western business and cultural leaders, and of the Soviet Comintern as well, Chiang undertook to defeat the warlords and reestablish a viable central government under his own control. Through the great northern expedition from Guangzhou, Chiang captured Beijing in 1927–28, established his own capital in Nanjing on the lower Yangzi River, and began to consolidate GMD power over China. Mao Zedong and Peasant Revolt Mao Zedong, Sun’s other principal successor, shared his goals of a strong, united, independent China and the improvement of the people’s livelihood, but his back- ground was quite different from Sun’s and Chiang’s. First, even though Mao, too, participated in the revolution of 1911, it had ended by the time he was 18. Second, Mao’s experience was limited to China. Although he read widely in Western as well as Chinese literature and philosophy, his first travel outside China, a visit to the Soviet Union, came only in 1949. Third, Mao had little experience of the Western business and missionary establishments in China. His own formative experiences were in the countryside and in formal educational institutions. Compared with both Sun and Chiang, Mao cared little for China’s reputation in the West but much for the quality of life of the Chinese peasant. He had grown up on his father’s farm in Hunan province, where he learned at first hand of the exploitation of the peasant. He viewed his father as one of the exploiters. By 1919, Mao had come to study at Beijing (Peking) University, just as China’s resentment against foreign imperialism was boiling over. The peace treaties of World War I assigned Germany’s holdings in the Shandong Peninsula of north China to Japan rather than returning them to China. Enraged students created the May Fourth Movement, a powerful and enduring protest against China’s international humiliation and the apparent disregard for its grand historical traditions. The movement helped to sow the seeds of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP), which came to fruition in 1921. At the time, Mao was a participant in the Marxist study group of Li Dazhao, chief librarian of Beijing University and one of the founders of the CCP. … When Mao first joined the party he began organizing workers in the industrial plants of the Wuhan region, but in 1925 he was reassigned to peasant orga- nization in his native Hunan. Despite the orthodox Marxist doctrines of the CCP’s Comintern advisers, in Hunan Mao came to see the rural peasantry, rather than the urban proletariat, as China’s revolutionary vanguard. He abandoned the emphasis on large-scale industrial planning and sought instead local solutions to local prob- lems through locally developed, appropriate rural technology. While Mao was organizing rural peasants in the 1920s, Chiang was massacring the core of the revolutionary urban proletariat. As he completed the first stage of the northern expedition from Guangzhou to Nanjing, and consolidated his control over the warlords, he turned, in alliance with the international business community, and without excessive objection from the Soviet Comintern, to murdering thousands of communist workers in the industrialized cities of Shanghai, Wuhan, and Guangzhou in the spring of 1927. In Changsha, local military leaders joined with the GMD and local landlords to slaughter thousands of peasants who had recently expropriated the land they worked from its legal owners. By the summer of 1928, only 32,000 union members in all of China remained loyal to the Communist Party. By 1929, only three percent of party members were proletarians. Mao’s peasant alternative was, of necessity, the communists’ last resort. When the GMD put down the Hunan Autumn Harvest Uprising in 1927, Mao’s core group retreated to the border area between Hunan and Jiangzi. Other communist leaders, driven from the cities, joined them in this rural area. They instituted soviets, local communist governments that redistributed land, introduced improved farming methods, and instituted new educational systems to spread literacy along with polit- ical indoctrination. They recruited and trained a guerrilla army. Mao himself formu- lated its tactics: “The enemy advances, we retreat; the enemy camps, we harass; the enemy tires, we attack; the enemy retreats, we pursue” (cited in Spence, 1999, p. 375). The guerrillas could exist only with the cooperation of the peasantry, whom they wished to mobilize. Mao therefore ordered them to treat the peasants with respect: “Be courteous and polite to the people and help them when you can ... Be honest in all transactions with the peasants ... Pay for all articles purchased” (cited in Snow, p. 176). Chiang sent five successive military expeditions against the Jiangzi soviet, beginning with 100,000 men and leading up to one million. By 1934, the communists could no longer hold out. Mao led some 80,000 men and 35 women out of the siege and began the Long March, a 370-day, 6,000-mile strategic retreat, by foot, under constant bom- bardment and attack from Chiang’s forces, across rivers, mountain ranges, marshes, and grasslands, to a new base camp in Yan’an. Some 20,000 men finally arrived in Yan’an, of whom about half had marched since the beginning; the rest had joined en route. The courage, comradeship, commitment, and idealism of this march, in the face of seemingly insurmountable natural obstacles and enemy harassment, were the formative experience of a generation of Chinese communist leaders. At the front, Mao now became the unquestioned leader of the movement, party, and army. The Yan’an Soviet. In remote, impoverished Yan’an, Mao established his capital and rebuilt his soviet structure, nurturing his army and inducting its soldiers into agricul- tural assistance work; redistributing land; encouraging handicrafts; and establishing newspapers and schools, an arts and literature academy, and medical programs for training paramedical barefoot doctors. The Chinese communist program developed more fully here: a peasant-centered economy, administered and aided by guerrilla soldiers, capped by a dictatorial but comparatively benevolent communist leadership, encouraging literacy accompanied by indoctrination in communist ideology. Tension built up, however, between the advocates of ideological goals and the proponents of practical implementation, between being “Red” and being “expert.” Cooperation with the GMD. Meanwhile, Mao wished to join forces with Chiang to unite China against the foreigner. By comparison, Chiang seemed less nationalistic. He appeared willing to compromise with the Japanese, and more eager to pursue the Chinese communists than to fight the foreign invaders. In the “Xi’an incident” of 1936, dissident generals kidnapped Chiang and threatened to kill him if he did not join more vigorously in the fight against the Japanese. Subsequently, Chiang moved toward temporary cooperation with the communists. In 1937, the Japanese invaded China proper, launching World War II, although that was not clear at the time. At first, the Japanese hoped to rule China with the help of Chinese collaborators, as they had Manchuria, but their cruelty in the capture of Nanjing in December 1937 backfired. Instead of collapsing, the Chinese resistance became more resolute. The communists fought a rearguard guerrilla war from their northern base in Shaanxi, while Chiang led a scorched-earth retreat to a new head- quarters far up the Yangzi River in Chongqing. Soldiers and civilians endured dread- ful suffering. The GMD Retreats to Taiwan. By the early 1940s, nationalist cooperation began to unravel as communists and GMD forces jockeyed for temporary power and future position. Following the defeat of Japan in 1945, full-scale civil war between the GMD and the communists resumed. The United States extended help to Chiang in training his troops, airlifting them to critical military locations, and delivering military sup- plies. The Soviet Union, fighting for its life against Germany, stayed out of the conflict against Japan until the final week of the war. Then it entered Manchuria, carrying off a great deal of that region’s military and industrial equipment to the Soviet Union, while turning over some of it to the Chinese communists. As China’s civil war contin- ued after 1945, communist forces in many parts of the country, well disciplined and warmly supported by peasants, defeated the ill-disciplined and ill-provisioned GMD forces, whose rations and materials were often sold off for private profit, without ever reaching them. By the fall of 1949, the communists had driven the GMD completely out of mainland China to the island of Taiwan. Selfishly, the GMD occupied and took over houses and businesses of Taiwanese who already lived there. They claimed that their government in Taiwan was the true China. They dreamed of someday recaptur- ing, reuniting with, and returning to the mainland. On the mainland, the new rulers surrounding Mao modeled much of their gov- ernment on their experiences during the Long March and the Yan’an soviet. They returned to these experiences for inspiration in difficult times as long as they lived. Their principal fears were of foreign domination, internal chaos, and the lingering power of the wealthy urban classes and the large-scale rural landholders. Revolutionary Policies Mao’s policy goals for the new government included the redistribution of land; pro- tection of women’s rights to hold land; implementation of appropriate technology; the production and equal distribution of basic necessities for all; and universal literacy. The government mobilized tightknit, local, social networks not only to suppress such vices as opium addiction and prostitution but also to enforce rigid political indoctrination and conformity. It encouraged family members to inform against one another in cases of opposition to the new government and it employed psychological coercion—“brainwashing”—to extract confessions of political deviance. Land redistribution was a top priority. During this class revolution, perhaps half the peasantry of China received at least some benefits while as many as one million landlords were killed. The communist gov- ernment at first invited the cooperation of businessmen, both Chinese and foreign. Policies changed abruptly as China entered the Korean War in October 1950. Threats, expropriation, and accusations of espionage—sometimes justified—against businessmen and Christian missionaries forced almost all foreigners to leave China by the end of 1950. Numerous campaigns against counterrevolutionaries; the confisca- tion and redistribution of private property; thousands of executions; intensive public, group pressure to elicit confessions from those perceived as enemies of the revolution; and regular confrontations between workers and owners destroyed the capitalist sector in China. Pressured by the United States, many countries refused to recognize the new gov- ernment. The government of the USSR, on the other hand, maintained a strong alliance. Communist policies on urbanization and industrialization were ambivalent. The communists had come to power as an anti-urban, peasant movement. The large cities, especially Shanghai, had fostered the foreign enclaves, extraterritorial law, and colonial behavior that flagrantly insulted the Chinese in their own country, but they also housed China’s industrial base, military technology, administration, and cultural life. Although the government attempted to limit immigration to the cities, newcom- ers from the countryside continued to arrive steadily, if slowly. China’s population, which had been 10.6 percent urban in 1949, reached 17.4 percent urban in 1976, an increase from 57 million (of a total of 550) to 163 (of a total of 920) million people. Militarily, the communists extolled the spirit of the guerrilla warrior over the power of high-tech weaponry. They taunted America, the world’s most heavily armed country, as unwilling or unable to deploy its vast arsenal, especially its nuclear weapons, in combat. Nevertheless, China also bought, produced, or pur- loined up-to-date military technology. In 1964, it exploded its first atomic bomb; in the mid-1970s it followed with hydrogen bombs; in 1980 it tested missiles with a range of 7,000 miles; and, in 1981, it launched three space satellites. “Let a Hundred Flowers Bloom.” Economically, China adopted a five-year plan based on the Soviet model. It called for multiplying the value of industrial output between 1952 and 1957 almost two and a half times, and claimed at the end to have exceeded the target by 22 percent. By the end of the plan, even democracy seemed a possibility. In 1956–57, Mao’s call, “Let a hundred flowers bloom, let a hundred schools of thought contend,” opened the gates to public expression and even criticism of government. In Beijing, students and others posted their thoughts on what became known as Democracy Wall. By late 1957, however, fearing uncontrolled, growing protest, the government reversed its policies. It jailed protesters, sent them to labor camps, and exiled them to remote rural farms. Many observers felt the entire experiment had been a trap to expose and apprehend critics of the regime. The Great Leap Forward. Increasingly threatened by an inability to feed its rapidly expanding urban populations, the government implemented the Great Leap Forward, “sending down” city people to work in villages, grouping almost all of rural China into communes, virtually shutting down whatever small private enter- prises had survived, and attempting to downscale and disperse industry by estab- lishing local, low-technology enterprises, referred to generically as “backyard steel mills.” The idea was that committed communists could manufacture, in small-scale production units, goods normally produced only in large-scale factories. The enterprises generally failed. The Great Leap Forward, administered by powerful, distant government officials in an attempt to restructure the entire economy of the nation according to communist ideology, led to economic catastrophe, including millions of deaths by starvation. The Cultural Revolution. In the face of these policy failures, Mao began to silence resistance. For a few years, the government had relaxed its economic and social controls, but in 1966 it reinstated even more extreme ideological and economic policies in the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution. Mao sought through this revolution to purge the party of time-serving bureaucrats and to reignite China’s revolution- ary fervor. Those who responded most enthusiastically were the armed forces and the students, who, with Mao’s encouragement, organized themselves into the Red Guard. Students denounced their teachers and party officials squelched freedom of expression. Professors and intellectuals were exiled to remote villages and forced to undertake hard manual labor. The Long March was now 30 years in the past, yet nostalgia for its ideological zeal continued to motivate China’s aging leaders. Mao was venerated as their last hope of restoring the intensity of those early days of the revolution. Millions of copies of The Quotations of Chairman Mao, often called the “Little Red Book” because of its size and the color of its cover, were published. These were circulated and read publicly throughout the country to audiences who were forced to listen. Economic chaos and starvation on the one hand and the total stifling and destruction of intellectual and academic life on the other brought China’s economic and cultural life to a standstill. Recovery. As the damage became clearly visible, China reversed its policy in yet another example of fang–zhou, “loosening up–tightening down.” The People’s Liber- ation Army was given the task of suppressing the Red Guards, the youth and student cadres who had wreaked chaos in the name of Mao. The government sought new international recognition, most dramatically through the normalization of relations with the United States in 1972. Domestically, attention refocused on restoring indus- trial productivity. “Between 1950 and 1977 industrial output grew at an average annual rate of 13.5 percent ... the highest rate of all developing or developed major nations of the world during the time, and a more rapid pace than achieved by any country during any comparable period of rapid industrialization in modern world history” (Meisner, pp. 436–37). By 1980, China was producing more steel than Britain or France. On the other hand, agriculture was upended, collectivized, and relatively neglected in terms of investment. The agonizingly slow growth of agriculture could barely keep pace with population growth. By the time Mao died in 1976, China was ready for a dramatic change in leadership and policies. Women in the People’s Republic of China Throughout the revolution, Mao had stressed the rights of women. After the communist victory in 1949, the new government issued a marriage law that forbade arranged marriages, prohibited marriage contracts for the purchase and sale of wives, and encouraged free choice of marriage partners. This law met strong resistance. Men who had already bought their wives objected; so did mothers-in-law, who ruled over each household’s domestic labor force. The traditional Chinese family provided for old-age security, child-care, medical facilities, and the production and consumption of food, clothing, and shelter. The new communist marriage law seemed to threaten this structure without providing any alternative. It was not widely enforced. In addition, the leadership of the party remained conspicuously male. Other laws in the new communist nation banned concubinage, footbinding, prostitution, and trafficking in women. A law of 1953 gave women the vote. Beginning in 1955, the government emphasized the importance of family planning; this led, in 1979, to a policy of limiting families, especially in urban areas, to only one child. Liberation of women was also seen as a means of expanding the labor force. In 1949 only 7 percent of the workforce was female; by 1982 the figure had reached 43 percent. About 70 percent of women worked (although in an overwhelmingly rural society, where women have always worked, all these official figures must be interpreted with caution). Declaring that “women hold up half the sky,” the communist government set out to obliterate centuries of exploitation. In practice, the task was not so simple. Historic patterns of male dominance persisted. The overwhelming majority of communist officials were men, and while they legislated better conditions for women, it was they, not the women, who formulated and promulgated the legislation. Decisions to end patriarchy were made patriarchally, and therefore had limited effect in practice. Men continued to feel that they should make the major decisions in the household, the workplace, and the political arena. Women in the workforce found that they now had the double burden of a day job outside the home and housework inside the home; this housework was not equally shared. Of the unemployed, 60–70 percent were women. In 1980, literacy among males had reached 78 percent; among females, it was 60 percent. Most glaring of all the inequalities was the ratio of men to women, 108:100 in 1981. (It rose to 110:100 by 2000 and 118:100 in 2010.) In a situation where only one child was permitted, families were choosing to abort female fetuses, or to kill newborn female babies, or to allow young girls to perish through persistent neglect of their health needs, in preference to males. AP World Name: Homework Due: 5/5/26 Unit 6: Global Conflicts Decolonization and Communism in Asia Directions: Complete the readings below: “Asian States Break Free” (overview), “Decolonization and Independence for India,” Independence and Civil War in Korea,” “Decolonization, Civil War, and Proxy War: Vietnam,” “War Destabilizes Cambodia.” Answer the questions in your notebooks. The vocab chart is color coded to help you locate the terms. Questions: Write a brief definition for the term or a description of the person listed in the chart below. Term/Person Definition/Description Indian National Congress (INC) Political party formed in 1885 by middle class Indian professionals which pushed for greater autonomy within British Empire Salt March A protest in 1930, led by Gandhi, where thousands marched fo make salt in defiance to British laws Mohandas Gandhi Leader of Indian independence movement who promoted non violence and non cooperation to resist British rule Ali Jinnah Leader of ML, later founded Pakistan Muslim League (ML) Political party formed in 1906 to rival INC and represent Muslim interests Nehru Leader of independent India and head of Hindu majority government after partioning Kim Il-Sung Former communist dictator of North Korea Ho Chi Minh Communist leader in Vietnam, fought against the West Domino Theory Belief that if one country falls to Communism nearby, others will follow suit Khmer Rouge Communist regime in Cambodia, came to power after instability from a war Pol Pot Leader of Khmer Rouge, performed mass killings and forced rural labor onto people Identify the steps Indian leaders took from 1880-1947 to gain independence from Britain. Which was most effective in your opinion? Formation of INC Creation of ML Increasing unrest Gandhi’s leadership in nonviolent resistance Boycott of British goods Mass protests I personally think increasing the amount of unrest within the country was most effective as it would create more tensions between the British and the Indians and make them effectively enemies. What were the effects of partition? Effects were: Split into two: India (Hindu), Pakistan (Muslim) Around 12M people migrated between the two Widespread violence Increasing tensions (ex: Kashmir) Pakistan splits into Bangladesh and Pakistan Both the Korean War and Vietnam War were proxy wars. Compare the causes of the conflict and aftermath once the superpowers left the conflict. Causes Both influenced by Communism Korea: North Korea (communist) invaded South Korea Vietnam: Started as anti colonial but later became a cold war struggle between countries Superpowers: USSR: Supported North Korea and North Vietnam US: Supported South Korea and South Vietnam Aftermath Korea: Remained in a stalemate, North and South Korea are still divided to this day Vietnam: US left the war, Vietnam ended up unifying under Communism How was Cambodia impacted by the war in Vietnam? Impacts: A trail ran throuhh Cambodia US invaded Cambodia and destroyed supply routes This destabilized their government Khmer Rouge got power Pol Pot led mass killings About 1.7m died Asian States Break Free (overview) Source: excerpts from Spodek In Southeast Asia, the Japanese had driven out the European colonial powers during World War II. At the end of the war, when the Europeans tried to return, they faced nationalist opponents who wanted an end to colonialism. In Indonesia, the largest of these countries, Achmed Sukarno (1901–70), who had been imprisoned by the Dutch and freed by the Japanese, declared independence in 1945, before the Dutch tried to return. The Dutch did return the next year and, with the help of the British, attempted to reestablish their rule through force of arms. In 1949, however, after four years of fighting, and after the United States threatened to cut off Marshall Plan aid to the Dutch, they withdrew, recognizing Indonesian independence. The Japanese had also seized Vietnam during World War II. When the French attempted to reestablish colonial rule, they met armed opposition and guerrilla warfare. As [you will see below], a sequence of military struggles—against the French; against the southerners, who tried to remain a separate nation; and against the United States—finally ended with the unification of independent Vietnam in 1976. India, the largest of all the colonies, finally won its independence from Britain in 1947, although the subcontinent was partitioned on religious grounds into two nations, India and Pakistan. In China, the communist revolutionaries, fighting for two decades under the leadership of Mao Zedong, captured the government in 1949, closed down the foreign holdings in the treaty ports, and asserted China’s control over its own destiny. Decolonization and Independence for India British Rule of India Begins to Unravel (1900-1910) The Indian people gained many benefits from 350 years of British rule, but at great cost. By 1900, modern railroads crisscrossed the Subcontinent, many towns and cities had electricity and modern plumbing. Along the coasts there were modern harbors where a brisk international trade occurred. There was a system of public education and scholarships were made available to those elite students who wished to attend university in Europe. One result of these improvements was the creation of a large Indian middle-class, people who understood politics and government and demanded a role in public decision-making. Another result was that the millions of Indian peasants grew poorer and began to resent their upper classes. In 1885, a group of middle class Indian professionals created a political party called the Indian National Congress (people called it the Congress Party) to agitate for greater autonomy within the British Empire. While the Congress Party had many gifted and eloquent leaders, it had difficulty attracting support among the peasantry, who viewed middle-class businessmen and lawyers as little better than the English. A second obstacle was the fact that the Congress Party was Hindu, and millions of people living in India were Muslim. In 1906, a man named Ali Jinnah formed a rival to the Congress Party called the Muslim League. Mohandas Gandhi The Indian people strenuously supported Britain during World War I. More than a million Indian soldiers had served on the Western Front against Germany. When the war ended, many Indians believed that their service and support would be rewarded with greater autonomy within the British Empire. In 1919, 10,000 peaceful protestors staged a demonstration for greater political freedom in the city of Amritsar. In response, the British General Reginald Dwyer ordered his Indian soldiers to open fire on the crowd, killing nearly 400 innocent people. The Amritsar Massacre became a defining moment. Many Indians began to feel that Britain could not be counted on to be a partner in an agreement on autonomy. Instead, what was needed was full Indian independence. As tensions between Indians and the British intensified, a new figure emerged as leader of the Indian independence movement. Mohandas Gandhi had been born into a wealthy Indian family. As a young man, he studied law in London and then lived in South Africa as a civil rights attorney. When he returned to India in 1915, he joined the Congress Party and devoted himself to the cause of Indian independence. Gandhi’s message and persona were unlike anything else presented by Indian independence leaders of the time. Beginning in 1921, he gave up wearing the suit and tie appropriate for an attorney of his class and began wearing homespun garments that covered only the middle portion of his body. He preached a message of nonviolence and non cooperation based on the Hindu religious principle of ahimsa [non-violence]. Millions of Indians responded to Gandhi’s message with a respect that bordered on reverence. Gandhi explained that the Indian people could drive out the British by simply not cooperating with the government. Five thousand British officials could not impose their will on 400 million Indians unless the Indians allowed them to do so. With this strategy in mind, Gandhi ordered boycotts of British goods and staged massive peaceful demonstrations. To protest the British monopoly on producing and taxing salt, in 1930 he staged the Salt March. This was an event in which tens of thousands of Indians followed Gandhi on a 240-mile trek to the sea where he made salt from seawater, which was the traditional way Indians made salt until the British outlawed the practice. Independence and Partition Buckling under political pressure from home and abroad, in 1946 Britain agreed to grant India full independence. While the announcement was an occasion for celebration, it was also cause for concern. The truth was that India’s millions of Hindus and Muslims held deep-seated animosity toward one another, and one role that Britain had provided was as the arbiter of that animosity. With Britain now gone, would Hindus and Muslims really be able to cooperate in the governance of a new nation? Gandhi said yes. He was insistent that Hindu and Muslims could get along in a peaceful democratic society. Unfortunately, he was wrong. Throughout the year 1946, violence between the religious sects was so tremendous that even Gandhi was forced to concede that the Subcontinent needed to be partitioned into more than one country – one for Hindus and another for Muslims. In 1947, two countries were created – Pakistan for Muslims with Ali Jinnah as leader, and India for Hindus with Jawaharlal Nehru as leader. Partition (excerpted from Spodek) Pakistan’s peculiar geography, with two “wings,” east and west, separated by some 800 miles of hostile Indian territory, reflected the distribution of Muslim majorities in the subcontinent. At partition, an estimated 12 million people shifted their homes. Six million Hindus and Sikhs from East and West Pakistan moved into India; six million Muslims from India transferred to Pakistan. The transfer of population was bloody; between 200,000 and one million people were murdered. Gandhi, too, was murdered at about this time—by a Hindu fanatic who thought he was too friendly to Muslims and their new state of Pakistan. Most Indians rejected religion as the official basis of statehood. When East Pakistan revolted against the domination of West Pakistan and declared itself the independent state of Bangladesh in 1971, Indians rejoiced: their rival state was now broken in two, and they felt vindicated in their belief that religion alone should not, and could not, be the basis of national unity. Few Hindus remained in Pakistan, but a sizeable Muslim minority, ten percent of India’s population, remained in India. While Hindus and Muslims mostly cohabited peacefully under a secular constitution, tensions between them remained and were sometimes exploited by political leaders, with increasing frequency after 1990. One of the continuing flashpoints has been the region of Kashmir, bordering—and claimed by—both Pakistan and India. Kashmir was one of the regions of India that had been ruled by the British indirectly, through a local maharajah, or prince. He was a Hindu and, at independence, he asked to join his state to India. However, the great majority of the population of Kashmir was Muslim, and they have never been given the opportunity to express their opinion in a vote. Several wars have been fought for control of Kashmir; the region is currently divided roughly along the line of the military cease-fires. No political resolution has been reached. Independence and Civil War in Korea Excerpts from Spodek The Korean peninsula had been a colony of Japan from 1910 until 1945. At the end of World War II, control over the peninsula was at first divided at the Thirty-eighth parallel between the Soviets to the north and the Americans to the south, with the prospect of unification under Korean self-government left for future negotiations. On June 25, 1950, the armed forces of communist North Korea, led by dictator Kim Il-Sung, invaded South Korea. The North Koreans attacked with the approval of their two enormous communist neighbors, the USSR and China, and with some support in the form of training and equipment as well. North Korean armies drove all the way to the southernmost part of the peninsula before American troops, sent as part of a United Nations (UN) force, drove them back to North Korea by September, and then kept pushing them farther north, toward the border with China. In response, China entered the war, sending in hundreds of thousands of troops in wave after wave of assaults, compensating with human numbers for what they lacked in equipment. In addition to their other weapons, the Americans and their allies deployed helicopters extensively to convoy troops, to stage aerial attacks, and to ferry wounded soldiers to mobile army surgical hospitals (MASH) units. China crossed the border into the south, capturing the South Korean capital of Seoul for a second time, until additional US and UN forces pushed them back to the Thirty-eighth parallel. Here the military and political situation ground to a stalemate that continued, with battles and negotiations, until the border of 1950 was reimposed with some modifications to reflect the military lines of the armistice. By the end of the war, in 1953, some 37,000 American soldiers had died along with about 200,000 South Korean soldiers and upwards of half a million civilians. (North Korea did not release statistics, but estimates are approximately comparable.) China announced about 150,000 military dead, although the US gave an estimate of four times that number. The Korean War increased the American feeling of threat from communism, since China was now involved. The war strengthened the reputation of the Chinese, who had held the mighty Americans to a military standoff. Mao repeated his charge that America was a “paper tiger” despite its nuclear weapons. He believed that, after Hiroshima and Nagasaki, America could never again use the arsenal of nuclear weapons that it possessed; the Korean War seemed to confirm his view. Ironically, the war poisoned the atmosphere between China and Russia as well, because Stalin had at first offered to support China if it went to war with America, and then withdrew the pledge. In the end, the USSR did lend some support, but Stalin’s equivocation left the Chinese leadership feeling betrayed. The war brought some prosperity to Japan, which served as a manufacturing base for United States war supplies and a prime location for rest-and-relaxation for US troops. Personal contact between Americans and Japanese increased, and the United States began to see Japan as its new ally in the Pacific. The United States terminated its occupation of Japan in 1952, and, reversing its earlier wish that Japan remain unarmed, encouraged that country to create some armed self-defense forces. The Korean War drove a wedge between the United States and many of its European allies. These allies had supported the early war effort to repulse the North Korean attack, but felt that America’s continuing push across the border into North Korea was unnecessarily belligerent and costly, and had provoked the Chinese response and the long, grinding years of war that followed. In addition, several European nations, which had so recently been at war with Germany, were apprehensive about America’s new strategy of rearming its former enemy as a military ally in the fight against communism. Decolonization, Civil War, and Proxy War: Vietnam The nations of Vietnam, Cambodia and Laos were once the French colony of Indochina. The French Emperor Napoleon III had taken control of this part of South Asia in the late 19th century because it was home to valuable rubber trees that he wanted to use in manufacturing. During World War II, Japan invaded French Indochina to get the rubber for its war in China. It was not difficult for the Japanese to conquer French Indochina because, at the time, Hitler had invaded France and French colonial troops could not receive needed supplies or reinforcements. The Japanese had a very difficult experience occupying Indochina during the war. From 1941-1945, a secret Vietnamese Communist organization called the Vietminh, led by a man named Ho Chi Minh, launched bombings and other terrorist attacks against Japanese soldiers and officials across Vietnam. Ho Chi Minh was a committed Marxist who wanted Vietnam to be an independent Communist nation. He had studied in the Soviet Union and had developed his own Marxist ideas. He knew that, because Vietnam was not industrialized, it did not fit that well into Karl Marx’s views of Socialism. Instead, Ho patterned his own vision for Vietnam on what Mao had done in China. During WWII, the United States supplied Ho Chi Minh with money and weapons to fight the Japanese. Ho began to believe that when the United States had finally defeated the Japanese, it would help Vietnam remain independent by making sure the French did not come back. After World War II, the French attempted to reestablish their colonial rule in Vietnam. They met armed opposition and guerrilla warfare led by Ho Chi Minh, the leader of the communist Vietminh, or Independence League. The Vietminh had established themselves in 1939 to fight French colonialism. Then they fought the Japanese occupation. Now they were once again fighting the French, and this time they won. [The United States supported the French in the 1950s because France was a NATO ally.] In May 1954 the French signed an armistice agreement with the Vietminh that partitioned the country at the Seventeenth parallel. The Vietminh governed the north. In the south, the French transferred full sovereignty to a new anticommunist government and withdrew their troops. Civil war engulfed the south. The north, under a communist government, called repeatedly for the reunification of the country and supported communist insurgents, the Vietcong, against the government of the south. America, tragically misreading this essentially nationalist civil war as a Cold War battle, and unskilled in fighting guerrilla warfare, committed increasing numbers of its own troops to supporting the government of the south in an ultimately doomed cause. [Meanwhile, Ho Chi Minh reached out to the Soviet Union for military support.] American policymakers feared a domino effect: they believed that if South Vietnam fell to the communist north, other countries of the region would follow one after the other. President Kennedy first committed American advisers to South Vietnam in 1961. President Lyndon Baines Johnson expanded the American commitment to full-scale warfare. By 1968, more than half a million US troops were fighting in support of South Vietnam. More than 58,000 American armed forces died in Vietnam during the war; 200,000 South Vietnamese military, more than a million South Vietnamese civilians, and 5,000 other allied forces also died. North Vietnam claimed 1,100,000 military deaths. Estimates of civilian deaths in the north were between one and two million. The war displaced more than six and a half million people in South Vietnam alone. The American effort failed. The Vietnam War intruded deeply and divisively into US domestic life. In the 1960s and early 1970s, the civil rights and feminist movements coalesced with the nation- wide protest against the war in Vietnam, creating a vibrant, creative, colorful, shrill, and sometimes violent culture conflict that convulsed the country with its excesses on both sides. Johnson, buffeted by a failing war abroad and hostile antiwar protests at home, declined to run for a second term. His successor, Richard Milhous Nixon, could do no better against the Vietnamese guerrillas. America signed a peace agreement in 1973 and evacuated its last troops in ignominious defeat in 1975. Vietnam was reunified in 1976 under the rule and administration of the North Vietnamese. (Left) Ho Chi Minh (Right)Viet Cong Soldier (some women were actual fighters, many drove transport vehicles) War in Vietnam destabilizes Cambodia America’s war in Vietnam had a very damaging effect on neighboring countries. Throughout the fighting, Soviet-backed North Vietnam had smuggled supplies to Viet Cong guerrillas in the South along a path called the Ho Chi Minh Trail, which extended through Laos and Cambodia. In 1970, United States President Richard Nixon ordered a massive incursion of US ground forces into Cambodia to destroy Communist supply depots. In the process of that attack, the United States inadvertently caused the Cambodian government to collapse. In its place came a Cambodian Communist regime called the Khmer Rouge. The Khmer Rouge was led by an extremist named Pol Pot who believed that all evidence of modernity and western culture needed to be erased from Cambodia society. To accomplish this, he outlawed living in cities and ordered every person currently living in a city to move to the country to become a peasant. Millions of Cambodians were forced at the point of a gun to begin walking with everything they could carry into the countryside. Pol Pot also believed that some Cambodians had become so modern that they required “re-education” in special camps. Re-education camps were little more than brutal concentration camps where hundreds of thousands of people were worked to death. Still others were deemed beyond re-education and executed. Being able to read, speaking a foreign language or wearing eyeglasses were also considered offenses worthy of death. In their short four-year reign, Pol Pot and his Khmer Rouge followers massacred 1.7 million people in special “killing fields.” Pol Pot Aftermath AP World Name: Homework Due: 5/1/26 Unit 5: Global Conflict Beginning of the Cold War Directions: Read the attached chapter from World Patterns and Interactions and complete the tasks below: Define the following developments/people/concepts: United Nations: International organization formed in 1945, designed to protect members iron curtain: Term to describe Communist Eastern Europe in contrast to Democratic Western Europe containment: A US policy which was designed to contain and stop the spread of Communism and Soviet ideologies in general Truman Doctrine: Policy where US gave aid to countries resisting communism Marshall Plan: US program which gave aid to Western European countries after WWII Cold War: Long period of tension and competition between US and Soviet Union, without directly fighting NATO: Military alliance between members, formed in 1949, for allied countries Warsaw Pact: Military alliance between members, formed in 1955, for Communist countries brinkmanship: Strategy of pushing conflict to the edge of an actual war to force other side to back down Reading Questions: 1) What factors help to explain why the United States and the Soviet Union became rivals instead of allies? The US and the Soviet Union had different political systems (democracy vs. communism) The US and the Soviet Union had different goals from each other The US wanted open markets while the Soviet Union wanted to spread communism and control Eastern Europe All of these factors led them to become rivals 2) What were Stalin’s objectives in supporting Communist governments in Eastern Europe? Stalin’s objectives were: create buffer zone to protect Soviet Union from future invasions rebuild Soviet economy using Eastern European resources Expand the spread of Communism 3) What were the goals of NATO and the Warsaw Pact? NATO: Aimed to protect Western countries from Soviet’s aggression Warsaw: Aimed to defend Communist countries Designed to counter NATO Both: Mutual defense 4) Why might Berlin be a likely spot for trouble to develop during the Cold War? Berlin was divided between the US and the Soviets, despite it being inside of East Germany, which meant that it would be easy for conflict to arise.